HYDRAULIC CIVILIZATION

according to the theories of the German-American historian Karl A. Wittfogel, any culture having an agricultural system that is dependent upon large-scale government-managed waterworksproductive (for irrigation) and protective (for flood control). Wittfogel advanced the term in his book Oriental Despotism (1957). He believed that such civilizationsalthough neither all in the Orient nor characteristic of all Oriental societieswere quite different from those of the West. Wittfogel believed that wherever irrigation required substantial and centralized control, government representatives monopolized political power and dominated the economy, resulting in an absolutist managerial state. In addition, there was a close identification of these officials with the dominant religion and an atrophy of other centres of power. The forced labour for irrigation projects was directed by the bureaucratic network. Among these hydraulic civilizations, Wittfogel listed ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and India and pre-Columbian Mexico and Peru. The extreme importance of the role of irrigation in social development has been disputed by other writers. Not all of the features that Wittfogel linked are necessarily found together, and they also may appear without large-scale irrigation. The static nature of his model has also been criticized. The U.S. anthropologist Robert McCormick Adams suggested that archaeological evidence fails to support Wittfogel's contention that irrigation is the primary cause of the formation of coercive political institutions but conceded that, as part of a larger system of subsistence techniques, political structure, and economic relationships, it may help consolidate political control.