KANT, IMMANUEL

born April 22, 1724, Knigsberg, Prussia [now Kaliningrad, Russia died Feb. 12, 1804, Knigsberg German philosopher whose comprehensive and systematic work in the theory of knowledge, ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy, especially the various schools of Kantianism and Idealism. Kant was the foremost thinker of the Enlightenment and one of the greatest philosophers of all time. In him were subsumed new trends that had begun with the Rationalism (stressing reason) of Ren Descartes and the Empiricism (stressing experience) of Francis Bacon. He thus inaugurated a new era in the development of philosophical thought. born April 22, 1724, Knigsberg, Prussia [now Kaliningrad, Russia] died Feb. 12, 1804, Knigsberg German metaphysician and philosopher whose comprehensive and systematic work in the theory of knowledge, ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced subsequent philosophy, especially the various German schools of Kantianism and idealism. Kant's whole life was spent in Knigsberg. He entered the university (1740) there as a theological student but was principally attracted to mathematics and physics, especially the work of Sir Isaac Newton. He served as a family tutor (174655) until he was able to complete his degree at the university. He then held the position of privatdocent (lecturer) for 15 years, during which time his fame as a teacher and lecturer increased and his interests broadened. During the 1760s he became increasingly critical of the philosophy of G.W. Leibniz, which was then prevalent in German universities, attacking both its mathematical methods and its leading ideas. In 1770 he was appointed to the chair of logic and metaphysics and began a period during which he published an astounding series of original works. Kant's chief works were the Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781; Critique of Pure Reason), a treatise about metaphysics; the Kritik der praktischen Vernunft (1788; Critique of Practical Reason), the standard source for his ethical doctrines; and the Kritik der Urteilskraft (1790; Critique of Judgment), a series of appendixes to the other two Kritiks. Additional reading Biography The main sources for Kant's life are three memoirs published in 1804: Ludwig Ernest Borowski, Darstellung des Lebens und Charakters Immanuel Kants (reprinted 1968); Reinhold B. Jachmann, Immanuel Kant geschildert in Briefen an einen Freund (reprinted 1968); and Christoph Wasianski, Immanuel Kant in seinen letzten Lebensjahren (the basis of Thomas De Quincey's The Last Days of Kant included in his Works). See also John H.W. Stuckenberg, The Life of Immanuel Kant (1882); Friedrich Paulsen, Immanuel Kant: His Life and Doctrine (1902, reissued 1963; originally published in German, 1898); Ernst Cassirer, Kant's Life and Thought (1981; trans. of 2nd German ed., 1921); and Karl Vorlnder, Immanuel Kants Leben, 3rd ed. (1974), and Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk, 2 vol. (1924, reissued 1977). Aids to study Rudolf Eisler, Kant-lexicon (1930, reprinted 1971); Heinrich Ratke, Systematisches Handlexikon zu Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1929, reprinted 1965). General works The best introduction is Stephan Krner, Kant (1955, reissued 1982). See also Edward Caird, The Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant, 2 vol. (1889, reprinted 1969); Kuno Fischer, Kants Leben und die Grundlagen seiner Lehre (1860); Alois Riehl, Der philosophische Kriticismus . . . , 3rd ed., 3 vol. (192426); Bruno Bauch, Immanuel Kant, 4th ed. (1933), in German; Henrich Rickert, Kant als Philosoph der modernen Kultur (1924); Max Wundt, Kant als Metaphysiker (1924); Martin Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics (1962, reissued 1972; originally published in German, 1929); Herman J. de Vleeschauwer, La Dduction transcendentale dans l'oeuvre de Kant, 3 vol. (1934, reissued 1976), and L'volution de la pense kantienne (1939); Pantaleo Carabellese, Il problema della filosofia in Kant (1938); Gottfried Martin, Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science (1955, reissued 1974; originally published in German, 1951); Heinz Heimsoeth, Studien zur Philosophie Immanuel Kants, 2nd ed. (1971); Richard Kroner, Kant's Weltanschauung (1956; originally published in German, 1914); Friedrich Delekat, Immanuel Kant, 3rd ed. (1969), in German. Precritical writings Mariano Campo, La genesi del criticismo kantiano (1953); Giorgio Tonelli, Elementi metodologici e metafisici in Kant dal 1745 al 1768 (1969), in German. The Critique of Pure Reason Norman Kemp Smith, A Commentary to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd ed. rev. (1923, reissued 1979); Herbert J. Paton, Kant's Metaphysic of Experience, 2 vol. (1936); Alfred C. Ewing, A Short Commentary on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1938, reprinted 1974); Thomas D. Weldon, Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd ed. (1958); Hermann Cohen, Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, 4th ed. (1925), and Kommentar zu Immanuel Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 4th ed. (1925); Hans Vaihinger, Kommentar zu Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1922, reissued 1970); Heinz Heimsoeth, Transzendentale Dialektik, 3rd vol. (196669). See also Graham Bird, Kant's Theory of Knowledge (1962, reissued 1973); Peter F. Strawson, The Bounds of Sense (1966, reissued 1975). Ethical writings Jeffirie G. Murphy, Kant: The Philosophy of Right (1970); Paul A. Schilpp, Kant's Pre-Critical Ethics, 2nd ed. (1960, reprinted 1977); Herbert J. Paton, The Categorical Imperative (1947, reissued 1971); Orna Nell, Acting on Principle: An Essay on Kantian Ethics (1975); Viggo Rossvaer, Kant's Moral Philosophy: An Interpretation of the Categorical Imperative (1979); Lewis W. Beck, A Commentary on Kant's Critique of Practical Reason (1960); A.E. Teale, Kantian Ethics (1951, reprinted 1975); William D. Ross, Kant's Ethical Theory (1954, reprinted 1978); Hermann Cohen, Kants Begrndung der Ethik, 2nd ed. (1910); Max Scheler, Der Formalismus in der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik, 6th ed. (1980). See also Paul Menzer's ed. of Eine Vorlesung Kants ber Ethik (1924; Eng. trans., Lectures on Ethics by Immanuel Kant, (1930); Morris Stockhammer, Kants Zurechnungsidee und Freitheitsantinomie (1961); Henrich W. Cassirer, A Commentary on Kant's Critique of Judgement (1938, reprinted 1970); Alfred Baeumler, Kants Kritik der Urteilskraft (1923). Particular problems (Science): Erich Adickes, Kant als Naturforscher, 2 vol. (192425); Jules Vuillemin, Physique et mtaphysique kantiennes (1955). (Ontology): Christopher B. Garnett, The Kantian Philosophy of Space (1939, reprinted 1965); Martin Heidegger, Kants These ber das Sein (1963), and What Is a Thing? (1968; originally published in German, 1962). (Philosophy of history): Yirmiahu Yovel, Kant and the Philosophy of History (1980); Klaus Weyand, Kants Beschichtsphilosophie: Ihre Entwicklung und ihr Verhltnis zur Aufklrung (1963). (Political philosophy): Susan M. Shell, The Rights of Reason: A Study of Kant's Philosophy and Politics (1980); Georges Vlachos, La Pense politique de Kant (1962). (Religion): Clement C.J. Webb, Kant's Philosophy of Religion (1926, reprinted 1970); Josef Bohatec, Die Religionsphilosophie Kants . . . (1938, reprinted 1966); Allan W. Wood, Kant's Rational Theology (1978). (Comparative studies): Johannes B. Lotz (ed.), Kant und die Scholastik heute (1955); Karl Jaspers, Die grossen Philosophen, 2 vol. (195781; abridged Eng. trans., The Great Philosophers, ed. by Hannah Arendt, 1966). (Aesthetics): Donald W. Crawford, Kant's Aesthetic Theory (1974); Paul Guyer, Kant and the Claims of Taste (1979). Opus postumum Erich Adickes, Kants Opus Postumum (1920, reprinted 1978); Gerhard Lehmann, Kants Nachiasswerk und die Kritik der Urteilskraft (1939). Journals Many important works of Kantian scholarship have been published in the periodical Kant-studien (quarterly). Major Works: Pre-critical writings Gedanken von der wahren Schtzung der lebendigen Krfte und Beurteilung der Beweise derer sich Herr von Leibniz und anderer Mechaniker in dieser Streitsache bedient haben (1746); Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (1755; Kant's Cosmogony . . . , 1900 and 1968; Universal Natural History and Theories of the Heavens, 1969); Principiorum Primorum Cognitionis Metaphysicae Nova Dilucidatio (1755; Eng. trans. by F.E. England in Kant's Conception of God, 1929); Metaphysicae cum geometria iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet Monadologiam physicam (1756); Versuch einiger Betrachtungen ber den Optimismus (1759); Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figurerewiesen (1762; trans. in Kant's Introduction to Logic and His Essay on the Mistaken Subtilty of the Four Figures, 1963); Der einzige mgliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseyns Gottes (1763; Enquiry into the Proofs for the Existence of God, 1836); Versuch, den Begriff der negativen Grssen in die Weltweisheit einzufhren (1763; An Attempt to Introduce the Conception of Negative Quantities into Philosophy, 1911); Untersuchung ber die Deutlichkeit der Grundstze der natrlichen Theologie und der Moral (1764); Beobachtungen ber das Gefhl des Schnen und Erhabenen (1764, 1766, 1771; Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, 1960); Trume eines Geistersehers erlutert durch Trume der Metaphysik (1766; Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, Illustrated by Dreams of Metaphysics, 1900; Dreams of a Spirit Seer, and Other Related Writings, 1969); De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis: Dissertatio (1770; Kant's Inaugural Dissertation and Early Writings on Space, 1929); Von den Verschiedenen Racen der Menschen (1775). Critical and post-critical writings Critik der reinen Vernunft (1781; rev. ed., Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1787; Critique of Pure Reason, 1929, 1950); Prolegomena zur einer jeden knftigen Metaphysik die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten knnen (1783; Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics, 1951); Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten (1785; The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Ethics, 1938; The Moral Law; or, Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, 1948; Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, 1969); Metaphysische Anfangsgrnde der Naturwissenschaft (1786; Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, 1970); Critik der practischen Vernunft (1788; Critique of Practical Reason, 1949); Critik der Urteilskraft (1790, 2nd ed. 1793; Kant's Kritik of Judgment, 1892, reprinted as Kant's Critique . . ., 1914; new version, Critique . . ., vol. 1, Kant's Critique of Aesthetic Judgment and vol. 2, Critique of Teleological Judgment, 191128, republished 1952); ber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neu Critik der reinen Vernunft durch eine ltere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll (1790; 2nd ed., 1791); Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (1793; 2nd ed., 4 pt., 1794; Religion Within the Boundary of Pure Reason, 1838; Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, 2nd ed., 1960); Zum ewigen Frieden (1795; 2nd ed., 1796; Project for a Perpetual Peace, 1796, many later editions called Perpetual Peace; 1915 ed. reprinted 1972); Die Metaphysik der Sitten (1797; 2nd ed., 17981803; The Metaphysic of Morals, 2 vol., 1799 and 1965; The Metaphysic of Ethics, 1836), comprising Metaphysische Anfangsgrnde der Rechtslehre (The Philosophy of Law, 1887) and Metaphysische Anfangsgrnde der Tugendlehre (The Doctrine of Virtue, 1964); Der Streit der Facultten (1798); Von der Macht des Gemths durch den blossen Vorsatz seiner krankhaften Gefhle Meister zu seyn (1798; Kant on the Art of Preventing Diseases, 1806); Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht abgefasst (1798; improved ed., 1800; The Classification of Mental Disorders, 1964); Immanuel Kants Physische Geographie, 3 vol. in 6 pt., 180104); I. Kants Logik: Ein Handbuch zu Vorlesungen (1800; Logic, 1819); Immanuel Kant ber Pdagogik (1803; Kant on Education, 1899; The Educational Theory of Immanuel Kant, 1904; Education, 1960); Welches sind die wirklichen Fortschritte, die Metaphysik seit Leibnizens und Wolf's Zeiten in Deutschland gemacht hat? (1804). Editions The standard edition of Kant's works is that of the Berlin Academy (later the DDR Academy), Gesammelte Schriften (1902 ), 29 vol. by 1980, which contains Kant's lectures, correspondence, and literary remains as well as his published writings. There are also modern collected editions by Ernst Cassirer, 11 vol. (191223); and by Karl Vorlnder, 10 vol. (192029). A convenient edition of the Critique of Pure Reason is that by Raymond Schmidt (1926).