MOROCCO, FLAG OF

national flag consisting of a red field with a green, five-pointed star in its centre. The flag's width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3. In the Early Middle Ages, during the westward expansion of Islamic armies across Africa, traditions concerning flags were established that continue to influence flags in use today. For example, Muslim forces favoured large military flags of plain colours that they associated with specific dynasties. The field of a typical flag was covered with stylized ornamentation and/or inscriptions from the Qur'an. Even when the ruling dynasties of Morocco, the Farthest West, were independent of control from Cairo or Istanbul, their flags were characterized by a single colour (usually red or white), with or without inscriptions. Sometimes local symbolsincluding the Sword of 'Ali, the Hand of Fatimah, or the crescent and starwere introduced, although some of these were based on Berber heritage, which long predated Islam. In the 20th century, when Morocco was subject to the rule of France and Spain, local flag traditions were restricted. The plain red flag that had been displayed by the ships of Morocco was modified by the French on November 17, 1915. To its centre was added the ancient pentagram known as the Seal, or Pentacle, of Solomon. It has a long history in ancient cultures over wide geographic and religious areas, and its meanings are quite different from the five-pointed star of modern flags, first popularized by the United States. The green pentagram on a red field was continued in use by Morocco even after French recognition of the country's independence in 1956. Whitney Smith Government and social conditions Government According to the 1992 constitution, political power in Morocco is to be shared between the hereditary ruler and an elected parliament. Despite the constitution, parliament, and active opposition parties, the king wields much more political power than do most heads of state. The king exercises ultimate political authority: he promulgates legislation, appoints and dismisses the prime minister as well as cabinet ministers, and can dissolve parliament and rule by decree at any time. His predominant role in political life has been a subject of intense debate and criticism. Since the mid-1990s, political reforms aimed at strengthening representative institutions, enhancing the authority of the parliament and prime minister, increasing political participation, and limiting the power of the king to manipulate political affairs have been enacted under pressure from both internal opposition groups and outside forces that have joined together to place democratization at the top of the political agenda. Parliamentary reforms approved in 1996 added a new upper house of parliament called the House of Councillors, thus creating a bicameral legislature. Members of the new 270-member upper chamber are chosen by local councils, trade unions, and professional associations. All 325 members of the lower chamber, the House of Representatives, are now directly elected by popular vote. Legislative elections held in 1997 marked a sea change in Moroccan politics: a Democratic Bloc comprising a coalition of four socialist, nationalist, and left-wing parties won a plurality of seats, producing the first opposition government in years and introducing a new element of dynamism into a stagnated political equation. The Ministry of the Interior retains considerable power, as do the security forces, which consist of the Royal Armed Forces, the National Police Force, the Royal Gendarmerie (mainly responsible for rural security), and the Auxiliary Forces (a reserve national guard). Islamist groups remained active on the political front, presenting an ongoing challenge to the regime. Some of the more moderate factions were politically co-opted when their representatives were elected to the 1997 parliament, but radical groups still have a significant power base within the universities and among unemployed young people. At the local level, Morocco is subdivided into three levels of government, all directly under the Ministry of the Interior. At the top are 49 (including four in Western Sahara) wilayat (provinces) and 'amalat (urban prefectures), each ruled by a governor appointed by the king. Beneath this first-order subdivision are rural qadawat (districts) and municipalities, governed by chefs de cercle. The third level comprises rural communes and autonomous urban centres, governed respectively by qa'ids (caids) and pashas. Lower-order officials are appointed either by the Ministry of the Interior or by the governors. Each level has popularly elected bodies whose primary function is to help determine local matters and priorities, such as initiating development projects and deciding budget expenditures. At the end of the 1990s, government policy was moving in the direction of devolving greater decision making to the local level. Justice In theory, the Qur'an is still the source of law. It is, in effect, exercised by the qadis (Muslim judges who interpret and administer the religious law of Islam) and is limited to matters relating to the personal status of Muslims. Rabbinical justice applies to Jews. All other matters, whether they concern Muslims, Jews, or others, are in the hands of secular courts that apply a French-inspired legal code. The highest legal authority is the Supreme Court, which supervises a legal system consisting of courts of appeal, regional tribunals, magistrates' courts, and, at the lowest level, courts of first instance. All judges receive appointments from the king and are supervised by the Ministry of Justice. The legal system, however, has not been immune to pressures for reform. Moroccan women, in particular, are seeking reforms in the Mudawwana, or code of personal status and family law, in an effort to change inequities in inheritance, divorce, and other matters that disfavour women. History This discussion focuses on Morocco since the 16th century. For a more detailed treatment of earlier periods and of the country in its regional context, see North Africa, history of. Situated in the northwest corner of Africa and, on a clear day, visible from the Spanish coast, Morocco has resisted outside invasion while serving as a meeting point for European, Arabian, and African civilizations throughout history. Its early inhabitants were Berber-speaking nomads; many of these became followers of Christianity and Judaism, which were introduced during a brief period of Roman rule. In the late 7th century, Arab invaders from the East brought Islam, which gradually assimilated into local Berber culture. Orthodox (Sunnite) Islam triumphed over various sectarian tendencies in the 12th and 13th centuries under the doctrinally rigorous Almohad dynasty. The Christian reconquest of Spain in the later Middle Ages brought waves of Muslim and Jewish exiles from Spain to Morocco, injecting a Hispanic flavour into Moroccan urban life. Apart from some isolated coastal enclaves, however, Europeans failed to establish a permanent foothold in the area. In the 16th century, Ottoman invaders from Algeria attempted to add Morocco to their empire, thus threatening the country's independence. They, too, were thwarted, leaving Morocco virtually the only Arab country never to experience Ottoman rule. In 1578, three kings fought and died near Ksar el-Kebir (Alcazarquivir), including the Portuguese monarch Sebastian. This decisive battle, claimed as a Moroccan victory, put an end to European incursions onto Moroccan soil for three centuries. The 17th century saw the rise of the 'Alawite dynasty of sharifs, who still rule Morocco today. This dynasty fostered trade and cultural relations with sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and the Arab lands, though religious tensions between Islam and Christendom often threatened the peace. By the late 17th century, Morocco's cultural and political identity as an Islamic monarchy was firmly established. The figure of the strong sultan was personified by Moulay Isma'il (16721727), who used a slave army to subdue all parts of the country and establish centralized rule. Subsequent monarchs often used their prestige as religious leaders to contain internal conflicts caused by competition among tribes and weak governments. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Europe was preoccupied with revolution and continental war, Morocco withdrew into a period of isolation. On the eve of the modern era, despite their geographic proximity, Moroccans and Europeans knew little about each other. Decline of traditional government (18301912) During the French invasion of Algeria in 1830, the sultan of Morocco, Moulay (Mawlay) Abd ar-Rahman (182259), briefly sent troops to occupy Tlemcen but withdrew them after French protests. The Algerian leader Abdelkader in 1844 took refuge from the French in Morocco. A Moroccan army was sent to the Algerian frontier; the French bombarded Tangier on August 4, 1844, and Essaouira (Mogador) on August 15. Meanwhile, on August 14, the Moroccan army had been totally defeated at Isly, near the frontier town of Oujda. The sultan then promised to intern or expel Abdelkader if he should again enter Moroccan territory. Two years later, when he was again driven into Morocco, the Algerian leader was attacked by Moroccan troops and was forced to surrender to the French. Immediately after Abd ar-Rahman's death in 1859, a dispute with Spain over the boundaries of the Spanish enclave at Ceuta led to a declaration of war by Madrid and to the Spanish capture of Ttouan in the following year. Peace had to be bought with an indemnity of $20 million, the enlargement of Ceuta's frontiers, and the promise to cede to Spain another enclaveIfni. The new sultan, Sidi Muhammad, attempted with little success to modernize the Moroccan army. Upon his death in 1873, his son Moulay Hassan I struggled to preserve independence. Hassan I died in 1894, and his chamberlain, Ba Ahmed, ruled in the name of the young sultan Abd al-Aziz until 1901, when the latter began his direct rule. Abd al-Aziz surrounded himself with European companions and adopted their customs, while scandalizing his own subjects, particularly the religious leaders. His attempt to introduce a modern system of land taxation resulted in complete confusion because of a lack of qualified officials. Popular discontent and tribal rebellion became even more common, while a pretender, Bu Hmara, established a rival court near Melilla. European powers seized the occasion to extend their own influence. In 1904 Britain gave France a free hand in Morocco in exchange for French noninterference with British plans in Egypt. Spanish agreement was secured by a French promise that northern Morocco should be treated as a sphere of Spanish influence. Italian interests were satisfied by France's decision not to hinder Italian designs on Libya. Once these various interests were settled, the Western powers met with Moroccan representatives at Algeciras, Spain, in 1906, to discuss the country's future. The Algeciras Conference confirmed the integrity of the sultan's domains but sanctioned French and Spanish policing of Moroccan ports and collection of the customs dues. In 190708 the sultan's brother, Moulay Abd al-Hafid, led a rebellion against him from Marrakech, denouncing Abd al-Aziz for his collaboration with the Europeans. Abd al-Aziz subsequently fled to distant Tangier. Abd al-Hafid then made an abortive attack on French troops, which had occupied Casablanca in 1907, before proceeding to Fs, where he was duly proclaimed sultan and recognized by the European powers (1909). The new sultan proved unable to control the country. Disorder increased until, besieged by tribesmen in Fs, he was forced to ask the French to rescue him. When they had done so, he had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Fez (March 30, 1912), by which Morocco became a French protectorate. In return, the French guaranteed that the status of the sultan and his successors would be maintained. Provision was also made to meet the Spanish claim for a special position in the north of the country; Tangier, long the seat of the diplomatic missions, retained a separate administration. The economy As is true in most former African colonies, the Moroccan economy remains heavily dependent on exports of raw materials. It is also characterized by a dichotomy between a large traditional sector and a smaller but growing modern export-oriented sector. Altogether, the modern portion accounts for more than two-thirds of the gross domestic product (GDP), even though it employs only about one-third of the country's workforce. The primary sector (agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry) accounts for about half of the labour force and one-seventh of GDP; the secondary sector (manufacturing, traditional handicrafts, and construction) for about one-sixth of the labour force and one-third of GDP; and the tertiary sector (commerce, administration, transportation, and service activities) for the remaining one-third of the labour force and about half of GDP. Not included in these statistics is a large informal economy of street vendors, domestic workers, and other underemployed and poorly paid individuals. High unemployment is a problem; the official figure is roughly one-fifth of the workforce, but unofficial estimates are much higher, and unemployment among university graduates holding nontechnical degrees is especially high. Since the mid-1980s the Moroccan government has undertaken a vigorous program of privatization and economic reform, encouraged by major international lenders such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Measures have included selling state-owned enterprises, currency devaluation, and changes in pricing policy to encourage local production. In 1999 the Moroccan government set up a loan fund to stimulate growth and competition among small businesses. Morocco's sandy beaches, sunshine, diverse environments, and rich cultural heritage give it outstanding potential for tourism, which it has developed to a large degree. Resources Morocco is endowed with numerous exploitable resources. With approximately 33,000 square miles (85,000 square km) of arable land (one-seventh of which can be irrigated) and its generally temperate Mediterranean climate, Morocco's agricultural potential is matched by few other Arab or African countries. With its acquisition of Western Sahara, moreover, it now possesses some two-thirds of the world's reserves of phosphates, used for the manufacture of fertilizers and many other products. Low world prices for phosphates, however, have hampered production. Other minerals include iron ore and coal, mined for Morocco's domestic use, and manganese, lead, and zinc, which are exported in small quantities. The fishing grounds in the Canary Current off Morocco's west coast are exceptionally rich in sardines, bonito, and tuna, but the country lacks the modern fleets and processing facilities to benefit fully from these marine resources. An important part of a major trade agreement Morocco concluded with the European Union (EU) in 1996 concerned fishing rights, by which the EU pays Morocco an annual fee to allow mainly Spanish vessels to fish in Moroccan waters. A major weakness in Morocco's resource inventory is its shortage of domestic energy sources. Oil exploration has been disappointing, although the country possesses some natural gas reserves that have been exploited. Its hydroelectric potential is considerable, though it is virtually untapped. Thus, Morocco must cover the bulk of its growing energy needs through imports, principally crude petroleum, which is then refined domestically. The land Relief Most of Morocco lies at high elevations, averaging about 2,600 feet (800 metres) above sea level. Two chains of mountains divide eastern from Atlantic Morocco: the Rif Mountains in the north form a buffer along the Mediterranean coastline, while the Atlas Mountains create a barrier across the centre. The two parts of the country are connected by the narrow Taza Gap in the northeast as well as by roads that follow older traditional routes. The Atlas and Rif ranges were formed during the Tertiary Period (between about 66.4 to 1.6 million years ago) by the folding and uplifting of sediment that had accumulated in the Tethys Sea, which, at that time, bordered the northern coast of Africa. The Rif Mountains are geologically part of the cordilleras (mountain chains) reaching southward from the Iberian Peninsula of Europe, from which Africa was separated only after the Tertiary. The crescent-shaped range rises abruptly from a narrow Mediterranean coastal plain. Most of the limestone peaks in the Rif Mountains surpass 4,900 feet (1,500 metres) and rise to 8,058 feet (2,456 metres) at Mount Tidirhine. The Atlas Mountains comprise three distinct chains. The High Atlas (Haut Atlas), 460 miles (740 km) long, begins as small hills at the edge of the Atlantic, rises rapidly to more than 6,500 feet (2,000 metres), and reaches 13,665 feet (4,165 metres) at Mount Toubkal, Morocco's highest point. The Middle Atlas (Moyen Atlas) trends away from the High Atlas in a northerly direction, rising to 10,958 feet (3,340 metres) at its crest. The Anti-Atlas extends southwestward from the High Atlas to the Atlantic. East of the Rif and Atlas ranges is the Moulouya basin, a semiarid lowland created by the eroding force of the Moulouya River. Farther east are the High Plateaus (Hauts Plateaux) of eastern Morocco, which lie roughly between 3,900 and 4,250 feet (1,200 and 1,300 metres) in elevation and are extensions of landforms in neighbouring Algeria. The arid regions to the south and southeast of the Atlas constitute the northwestern limit of the Sahara, while a narrow transitional band at the base of the mountains is called the pre-Sahara. Atlantic Morocco consists of plains formed of relatively fine sediments and plateaus of coarser deposits. The Sebou River basin, which lies in the northwest between the Rif Mountains and a line running roughly from Rabat to Fs, is a large alluvial plain. Its agricultural heart is known as the Rharb Plain. South of the Rabat-Fs line, between the Atlas and the Atlantic Ocean, are a series of high plains known collectively as the Moroccan Plateau. These include the Sas Plain near Fs and Mekns, the Tadla Plain to the northeast of Marrakech, the Haouz Plain west of Marrakech, and the broad Chaoua, Doukkala, and Abda plains south of Casablanca. Between the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas ranges is the Sous River valley. Morocco's coastline is regular and has few natural harbours. Before modern ports were constructed, sandbars and rocky reefs offshore made navigation difficult. Drainage Morocco's mountains capture significant amounts of rain and snow on their windward slopes from storms coming in off the North Atlantic and give rise to numerous perennial watercourses. Indeed, the country has the most extensive stream network in North Africa. Most streams arise either on the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains or on the southern slopes of the Rif Mountains and flow westward to the Atlantic Ocean. The Sebou is some 280 miles (450 km) long and has the largest volume of any Moroccan river. With its tributaries, the Sebou accounts for almost half of Morocco's surface water resources. The Oum er-Rbia is Morocco's longest river, approximately 345 miles (555 km) in length. The Moulouya is the only major river flowing to the Mediterranean Sea; it originates on the eastern slopes of the Middle Atlas and flows about 320 miles (515 km) from its mouth, which lies near the Algerian frontier. The northern slopes of the Rif are drained by several short streams that also empty into the Mediterranean. Several minor streams originate on the dry eastern slopes of the High Atlas and flow into the Sahara: the Guir, the Rheris, the Ziz, the Dads, and the Dra. Although their volume is small, they have cut deep gorges. Since the 1930s Morocco's streams have progressively been dammed for irrigation, hydroelectricity, and flood control. The people Ethnolinguistic composition The population of Morocco is mostly Arab and Berber in origin. After generations of intermarriage, the primary difference between the two groups is now linguistic. The Berber language, although greatly influenced by Arabic, has been preserved in the mountainous regions, which have long been areas of refuge. Berber-speaking inhabitants are divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: the Rif people (also called Riffi or Riffians) of the Rif Mountains, the Tamazight of the Middle Atlas, and the Shluh of the High Atlas and the Sous valley. With improved communications and an ongoing rural exodus to the towns, Arabic-Berber bilingualism is becoming more common among much of the Berber-speaking population. The remainder of the Moroccan population primarily speaks Arabic (with French as an important secondary language). It is composed mainly of Arabized Berbers, descendants of Bedouin Arabs (who moved to Morocco with the armies of Islam in the 7th century or with the invading Hilal tribe in the 11th and 12th centuries). Some are also descendants of refugees from Spain who fled from the Reconquista, the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which culminated in 1492. Trade, cultural relations, and the practice of slavery led to the introduction of a significant black population from sub-Saharan Africa into Morocco; their descendants now live chiefly in the southern oases and in the larger cities. The Jewish minority was quite large until Jews began emigrating to Israel, Europe, and South and North America after 1948. Islam is the official religion, and the vast majority of Moroccans are Sunnite Muslims of the Maliki tradition. Demographic trends Morocco's population is growing at a slightly faster rate as compared to countries outside of Africa, but it is well below the average for those in the Middle East and North Africa. Nonetheless, Morocco has a large population for its size that is highly concentrated in the most habitable areas. About one-third of the population is under the age of 15. For some time the opportunity to emigrate to western European countries offered a partial solution to Morocco's population pressure, and by the early 1980s some 600,000 Moroccan workers and merchants had established themselves in western Europe. By the mid-1990s, Morocco's population problem was only marginally relieved by migration to the labour markets in the Persian Gulf region.