SACRED

the power, being, or realm understood by religious persons to be at the core of existence and to have a transformative effect on their lives and destinies. Other terms, such as holy, divine, transcendent, ultimate being (or reality), mystery, and perfection (or purity) have been used for this domain. Sacred is also an important technical term in the scholarly study and interpretation of religions. For a discussion of dogmatic interpretations of the Divine as a being or force, see doctrine and dogma. Additional reading The socio-anthropological analyses written near the beginning of the 20th century that are still useful for their interpretations of the sacred in preliterate societies include Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, Essai sur la nature et le fonction du sacrifice (1899; Eng. trans., Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function, 1964); and mile Durkheim, Les Formes lmentaires de la vie religieuse, le systme totmique en Australia (1912; Eng. trans., The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 1965). More recently, in the same vein, are E.O. James, Sacrifice and Sacrament (1962), a comparative analysis of sacred ritual from many different religious traditions; and Roger Caillois, L'Homme et le sacr (1939; Eng. trans., Man and the Sacred, 1960), a general reflective interpretation of various social expressions of the sacred. The following combine philosophical and theological concerns: Rudolf Otto, Das Heilige (1917; Eng. trans., The Idea of the Holy, 1923), an appeal to an a priori preconceptual knowledge of the holy; Max F. Scheler, Vom Ewigen im Menschen, 2nd ed. (1923; Eng. trans., On the Eternal in Man, 1960), an intuitive philosopher's argument for the eternal reality of the sacred prior to man's awareness or social expression of it; Nathan Soderblom, Holiness, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 6:73141 (1928, reprinted 1955), which stressed the quality of holiness in all religion four years prior to Otto's more famous statement, and his Living God: Basal Forms of Personal Religion (1933), a comparative study of religion organized according to various ways through which man encounters God; and Joachim Wach, The Comparative Study of Religions, ed. by J.M. Kitagawa (1958), a systematic analysis of the modes (thought, action, fellowship) used to express the religious experience. Two Dutch phenomenologists of religion who have made notable contributions to the interpretation of forms that express man's relation to the sacred are Gerardus van der Leeuw, whose Phnomenologie der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion in Essence and Manifestation, 1963) organizes a wide spectrum of data into three foci: the object of religion, the subject of religion, and their reciprocal relation; and W. Brede Kristensen, who wrote The Meaning of Religion (1960), a series of lectures given during the 1930s on the sacredness of man's cosmological, anthropological, and cultic awareness as expressed in the preliterate cultures and those of the ancient Mediterranean area. An extensive analysis of the forms and modes in which the sacred is recognized is found in the writings of Mircea Eliade, for whom the apprehension of the sacred is a unique kind of experience in which the creative power(s) of life appear(s) in particular symbols, myths, and rites. Four of his works that deal with the nature and meaning of the sacred in different types of expression are: Le Mythe de l'ternel retour (1949; Eng. trans., The Myth of the Eternal Return, 1954, reissued 1989); Myth and Reality (1963); Trait d'histoire des religions (Eng. trans., Patterns in Comparative Religion, 1958); and The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (1959).