STEFFENS, (JOSEPH) LINCOLN

born April 6, 1866, San Francisco died Aug. 9, 1936, Carmel, Calif., U.S. U.S. journalist, lecturer, and political philosopher, a leading figure among the writers whom Theodore Roosevelt called muckrakers. After attending the University of California, Steffens studied psychology with Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig and with Jean-Martin Charcot in Paris, which confirmed his basic positivist orientation. During nine years of New York City newspaper work ending in 1901, Steffens discovered abundant evidence of the corruption of politicians by businessmen seeking special privileges. In 1901 after he became managing editor of McClure's Magazine, he began to publish the influential articles later collected as The Shame of the Cities (1906), a work closer to documented sociological case study than to mere sensational exposure. Many nationwide lecture tours won him recognition. He raised rather than answered questions, jolting his audience into awareness of the ethical paradox of private interest in public affairs by comic irony rather than by moral indignation. He revealed the shortcomings of the popular dogmas that connected economic success with moral worth, and national progress with individual self-interest. Events in Mexico and Russia turned Steffens' attention from reform to revolution. After a trip to Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) in 1919 he wrote a friend, I have seen the future; and it works. His unorthodoxy lost him his American audience during the 1920s; he continued to study revolutionary politics in Europe and became something of a legendary character for the younger expatriates. After the great success of his Autobiography (1931), he supported many communist activities but refused identification with any party or doctrine.