SUDAN, HISTORY OF THE

history of the area from prehistoric and ancient times to the present. Additional reading Harold D. Nelson (ed.), Sudan, a Country Study, 3rd ed. (1983), provides basic information on the land, people, economy, and history. The early history of the Sudan is best presented in the magisterial work by William Y. Adams, Nubia: Corridor to Africa (1977); and Yusuf Fadl Hassan, The Arabs and the Sudan: From the Seventh to the Early Sixteenth Century (1967). The age of the Funj kingdom in the Sudan is comprehensively covered by O.G.S. Crawford, The Fung Kingdom of Sennar (1951, reprinted 1978); and Jay Spaulding, The Heroic Age of Sinnar (1985); while the history of the eastern Sudan is described in Andrew Paul, A History of the Beja Tribes of the Sudan (1954, reprinted 1971). The most comprehensive yet succinct history of the Sudan from the Funj sultanate to 1978 is P.M. Holt and M.W. Daly, The History of the Sudan, from the Coming of Islam to the Present Day, 4th ed. (1988). This account may be supplemented by more specialized studies of the history of the Sudan in the 19th century, such as Richard Hill, Egypt in the Sudan, 18201881 (1959, reprinted 1986); P.M. Holt, The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 18811898: A Study of Its Origins, Development, and Overthrow, 2nd ed. (1970); and Lidwien Kapteijns, Mahdist Faith and Sudanic Tradition: The History of the Masalit Sultanate, 18701930 (1985).The reconquest of the Sudan by Britain and Egypt resulted in a great outpouring of historical literature. The campaign itself is brilliantly narrated by Winston S. Churchill, The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan, 3rd ed. (1933, reissued 1973). The formulation of British policy that led to the Anglo-Egyptian reconquest is analyzed by Mekki Shibeika (Makki Shibikah), British Policy in the Sudan, 18821902 (1952); and G.N. Sanderson, England, Europe & the Upper Nile, 18821899: A Study in the Partition of Africa (1965). Robert O. Collins, King Leopold, England, and the Upper Nile, 18991909 (1968), treats the decade following the Fashoda crisis. The history of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium has been summarized in a single volume by Harold A. MacMichael, The Sudan (1954); but a more comprehensive and balanced account is available in two works by M.W. Daly, Empire on the Nile: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 18981934 (1986), and Imperial Sudan: The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, 19341956 (1991).The transitional period of self-government and the vicissitudes of independence have been narrated by K.D.D. Henderson, Sudan Republic (1966); Mohamed Omer Beshir, Revolution and Nationalism in the Sudan, 2nd ed. (1977); and in two books concerning the regime of President Nimeiri by Mansour Khalid, Nimeiri and the Revolution of Dis-May (1985), and The Government They Deserve: The Role of the Elite in Sudan's Political Evolution (1990). Ahmad Alawad Sikainga, The Western Bahr al-Ghazal Under British Rule, 18981956 (1991), documents events in this lesser known portion of the country. The southern Sudan has its own historical literature, the most useful being Richard Gray, A History of the Southern Sudan, 18391889 (1961, reprinted 1978); and the trilogy by Robert O. Collins, The Southern Sudan, 18831898 (1962), Land Beyond the Rivers: The Southern Sudan, 18981918 (1971), and Shadows in the Grass: Britain in the Southern Sudan, 19181956 (1983). There is no adequate history of the long civil war between the northern and southern Sudan, but several books address themselves to the conflict, including Joseph Oduho and William Deng, The Problem of the Southern Sudan (1963); Mohamed Omer Beshir, The Southern Sudan: Background to Conflict (1968); and Dunstan M. Wai, The African-Arab Conflict in the Sudan (1981). Robert O. Collins