TURNER, FREDERICK JACKSON

born Nov. 14, 1861, Portage, Wis., U.S. died March 14, 1932, San Marino, Calif. American historian best known for the frontier thesis. The single most influential interpretation of the American past, it proposed that the distinctiveness of the United States was attributable to its long history of westering. Despite the fame of this monocausal interpretation, as the teacher and mentor of dozens of young historians, Turner insisted on a multicausal model of history, with a recognition of the interaction of politics, economics, culture, and geography. Turner's penetrating analyses of American history and culture were powerfully influential and changed the direction of much American historical writing. Born in frontier Wisconsin and educated at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, Turner didgraduate work at Johns Hopkins University under Herbert Baxter Adams. Awarded his doctorate in 1891, he was one of the first historians professionally trained in the United States rather than Europe. Turner began his teaching career at the University of Wisconsin in 1889. He began to make his mark with his first professional paper, The Significance of History (1891), which contains the famous line each age writes the history of the past anew with reference to the conditions uppermost in its own time. The controversial notion that there was no fixed historical truth, and that all historical interpretation should be shaped by present concerns, would become the hallmark of the so-called New History, a movement that called for studies illuminating the historical development of the political and cultural controversies of the day. Turner should be counted among the progressive historians, though, with the political temperament of a small-town Midwesterner, his progressivism was rather timid. Nevertheless, he made it clear that his historical writing was shaped by a contemporary agenda. Turner first detailed his own interpretation of American history in his justly famous paper, The Significance of the Frontier in American History, delivered at a meeting of historians in Chicago in 1893 and published many times thereafter. Adams, his mentor at Johns Hopkins, had argued that all significant American institutions derived from German and English antecedents. Rebelling against this view, Turner argued instead that Europeans had been transformed by the process of settling the American continent, and that what was unique about the United States was its frontier history. (Ironically, Turner passed up an opportunity to attend Buffalo Bill's Wild West show so that he could complete The Significance of the Frontier in American History on the morning that he presented it.) He traced the social evolution of frontier life as it continually developed across the continent from the primitive conditions experienced by the explorer, trapper, and trader, through maturing agricultural stages, finally reaching the complexity of city and factory. Turner held that the American character was decisively shaped by conditions on the frontier, in particular the abundance of free land, the settling of which engendered such traits as self-reliance, individualism, inventiveness, restless energy, mobility, materialism, and optimism. Turner's frontier thesis rose to become the dominant interpretation of American history for the next half-century and longer. In the words of historian William Appleman Williams, it rolled through the universities and into popular literature like a tidal wave. While today's professional historians tend to reject such sweeping theories, emphasizing instead a variety of factors in their interpretations of the past, Turner's frontier thesis remains the most popular explanation of American development among the literate public. For a scholar of such wide influence, Turner wrote relatively few books. His Rise of the New West, 18191929 (1906) was published as a volume in The American Nation series, which included contributions from the nation's leading historians. The follow-up to that study, The United States, 18301850: The Nation and Its Sections (1935), would not be published until after his death. Turner may have had difficulty writing books, but he was a brilliant master of the historical essay. The winner of an oratorical medal as an undergraduate, he also was a gifted and active public speaker. His deep, melodious voice commanded attention whether he was addressing a teachers group, an audience of alumni, or a branch of the Chautauqua movement. His writing, too, bore the stamp of oratory; indeed, he reworked his lectures into articles that appeared in the nation's most influential popular and scholarly journals. Many of Turner's best essays were collected in The Frontier in American History (1920) and The Significance of Sections in American History (1932), for which he was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1933. In these writings Turner promoted new methods in historical research, including the techniques of the newly founded social sciences, and urged his colleagues to study new topics such as immigration, urbanization, economic development, and social and cultural history. He also commented directly on the connections he saw between the past and the present. The end of the frontier era of continental expansion, Turner reasoned, had thrown the nation back upon itself. Writing that imperious will and force had to be replaced by social reorganization, he called for an expanded system of educational opportunity that would supplant the geographic mobility of the frontier. The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and rifle, he wrote; in place of old frontiers of wilderness, there are new frontiers of unwon fields of science. Pioneer ideals were to be maintained by American universities through the training of new leaders who would strive to reconcile popular government and culture with the huge industrial society of the modern world. Whereas in his 1893 essay he celebrated the pioneers for the spirit of individualism that spurred migration westward, 25 years later Turner castigated these slashers of the forest, these self-sufficing pioneers, raising the corn and live stock for their own need, living scattered and apart. For Turner the national problem was no longer how to cut and burn away the vast screen of the dense and daunting forest but how to save and wisely use the remaining timber. At the end of his career, he stressed the vital role that regionalism would play in counteracting the atomization brought about by the frontier experience. Turner hoped that stability would replace mobility as a defining factor in the development of American society and that communities would become stronger as a result. What the world needed now, he argued, was a highly organized provincial life to serve as a check upon mob psychology on a national scale, and to furnish that variety which is essential to vital growth and originality. Turner never ceased to treat history as contemporary knowledge, seeking to explore the ways that the nation might rechannel its expansionist impulses into the development of community life. Turner taught at the University of Wisconsin until 1910, when he accepted an appointment to a distinguished chair of history at Harvard University. At these two institutions he helped build two of the great university history departments of the 20th century and trained many distinguished historians, including Carl Becker, Merle Curti, Herbert Bolton, and Frederick Merk, who became Turner's successor at Harvard. He was an early leader of the American Historical Association, serving as its president in 1910 and on the editorial board of the association's American Historical Review from 1910 to 1915. Poor health forced his early retirement from Harvard in 1924. Turner moved to the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, where he remained as senior research associate until his death. John Faragher Additional reading Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: The Significance of the Frontier in American History and Other Essays, ed. by John Mack Faragher (1994), reprints Turner's most important essays and provides commentary. Patricia Nelson Limerick, Clyde A. Milner II, and Charles E. Rankin (eds.), Trails: Toward a New Western History (1991), offers a series of critiques of the frontier thesis. Kerwin Lee Klein, Frontiers of Historical Imagination: Narrating the European Conquest of Native America, 18901990 (1997), is a recent, more positive reevaluation of Turner's contribution. John Faragher