'UTHMAN IBN 'AFFAN

died June 17, 656, Medina, Arabian Peninsula third caliph to rule after the death of the Prophet. He centralized the administration of the caliphate and established an official version of the Qur'an. 'Uthman is critically important in Islamic history because his death marked the beginning of open religious and political conflicts within the Islamic community (see fitnah). 'Uthman was born into the rich and powerful Umayyad clan of Mecca, and he became a wealthy merchant. When Muhammad began preaching in Mecca c. 615, he soon aroused the hostility of the Umayyads, but about five years later 'Uthman accepted Muhammad and thus became the first convert of high social and economic standing. Muhammad valued this contact with the Meccan aristocracy, and he allowed 'Uthman to marry one of his daughters. 'Uthman rarely displayed energy or initiative, however, and his role in the first years of Islamic history was passive. 'Umar, the second caliph, died in 644, and 'Uthman was elected successor by a council named by 'Umar before his death. Apparently 'Uthman was selected as a compromise, when the more powerful candidates cancelled each other out. He also represented the Umayyad clan, which had suffered a partial eclipse during the Prophet's lifetime but was now reasserting its influence. As caliph 'Uthman promulgated an official version of the Qur'an, which had existed in various versions. 'Uthman followed the same general policies as had 'Umar, but he had a less forceful personality than his predecessor. He continued the conquests that had steadily increased the size of the Islamic empire, but the victories now came at a greater cost and brought less booty in return. 'Uthman tried to create a cohesive central authority to replace the loose tribal alliance that had emerged under Muhammad. He established a system of landed fiefs and distributed many of the provincial governorships to members of his family. Thus much of the treasure received by the central government went to 'Uthman's family and to other provincial governors rather than to the army. As a result of his policies, 'Uthman was opposed by the army, and he was often dominated by his relatives, unlike 'Umar, who had been strong enough to impose his authority on the governors, whatever their clan or tribe. By 650 rebellions had broken out in the provinces of Egypt and Iraq. In 655 a group of Egyptian malcontents marched upon Medina, the seat of caliphal authority. 'Uthman, however, was conciliatory, and the rebels headed back to Egypt. Shortly thereafter, however, another group of rebels besieged 'Uthman in his home, and, after several days of desultory fighting, he was killed.