1830, REVOLUTIONS OF

rebellions against conservative kings and governments by liberals and revolutionaries in different parts of Europe in 1830-32. The movement started in France, prompted by Charles X's publication on July 26 of four ordinances dissolving the Chamber of Deputies, suspending freedom of the press, modifying the electoral laws so that three-fourths of the electorate lost their votes, and calling for new elections to the Chamber in September. Strikes and protests were followed by armed confrontations. The royal forces were unable to contain the insurrection; and, after three days of fighting (July 27-29), Charles abdicated the throne and soon afterward fled to England. The radicals wanted to establish a republic, and the aristocracy were loyal to Charles, but the upper-middle class were victorious in their decision to offer the crown to the Duke of Orlans, Louis-Philippe, who had fought for the French Republic in 1792. Louis agreed to be "King of the French." When the "July Revolution" was over, the Chamber of Peers had been transformed from a hereditary body into a nominated house, special tribunals were abolished, the alliance of the monarchy and the Roman Catholic church was ended, and the white flag of the Bourbons was replaced by the tricolour. (See also July Revolution.) Liberals throughout Europe were encouraged to hope for a general social revolution, but most were disappointed. Louis-Philippe did not want a war and, contrary to expectations, did not support the Poles, who had revolted against the Russian tsar. Their revolt was ruthlessly suppressed, and Poland was incorporated into the Russian Empire. Revolts in Italy and the German kingdoms were equally unsuccessful. Belgium declared its independence from The Netherlands, and it was recognized in 1831 as a separate nation. For several years the Greeks had been fighting for their independence from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1832 the European powers recognized Greece as an independent sovereign state.