BODY MODIFICATIONS AND MUTILATIONS

intentional permanent or semipermanent modifications of the living human body for religious, aesthetic, or social reasons. The methods of modification and mutilation used are incision, perforation, complete or partial removal, cautery, abrasion, adhesion, insertion of foreign bodies or materials, compression, distention, diversion, enlargement, and staining. Body modifications are frequently performed for magical and medical purposes, but cosmetic (aesthetic) motives are perhaps equally common. The variability of the results in different cultures is an excellent indication of the relativity of ideals of beauty. Ritualistic motives for modification are concerned with religion (sacrifice, ascetic mortification), magical protection, mourning, the indication of status or rank or group membership, bravado, and punishment. The practice of ritual mutilation is generally used to modify the social position of an individual in a manner visible to and recognized by other members of the society. Mutilation may be performed as a part of initiation, marriage, or mourning rites, or it may be inflicted as a means of punishment, either for serious crimes or for social transgressions.