CENTRAL ASIAN ARTS

the literary, performing, and visual arts of a large portion of Asia embracing the Turkic republics (Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan), Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and China. As used here, the term denotes only those traditions that were not influenced by the religion of Islam. This immense tract of landwith its highly varied topography and climate and its diversity of ethnic and linguistic backgroundsencouraged the development of greatly varied artistic styles and traditions among the inhabitants of widely separated regions. These differences were magnified by the emergence of dissimilar religions, which in turn encouraged the formation of distinctive schools or traditions of art. Further artistic variances can be attributed to cultural time lag, for comparable stages of artistic development were not reached simultaneously throughout the area. The arts that developed across Central Asia often fed or were fed by those of adjoining cultural regions or by such supraregional influences as Islam. Although reference will be made to such cross-cultural interactions wherever appropriate, more detailed information on these other areas may be found in the articles East Asian arts, Islamic arts, and South Asian arts. (The peoples and cultures of the region are treated in the articles Asia, Asian people, and Central Asia.) Tamara Talbot Rice the literary, performing, and visual arts of a large portion of Asia embracing the Turkic republics (Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan), Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Tibet, Nepal, and parts of Russia and China. As used here, the term Central Asian arts denotes only those traditions that were not influenced by the religion of Islam. (See Islamic arts.) The most important written literatures among the Central Asian peoples are those of the Tibetans and Mongolians. Tibetan developed as a literary language from the 7th century as a result of cultural contacts with neighbouring Buddhist countries to the south, on the Indian subcontinent. Most works produced between the 7th and 13th centuries are skillful translations of Buddhist works from Sanskrit, after which a vast body of orthodox Buddhist works of purely Tibetan origin was built up. Mongolian literature began in the 13th century with chronicles of Genghis Khan and his successors, but from the late 16th century Mongolian literature was profoundly influenced by Buddhism. The variety of musical styles in Central Asia ranges from the systematically organized classical music of the Turkic peoples, to the notated religious chants of Buddhists in Tibet, to the highly varied folk music styles of the Mongols, Siberians, and numerous other ethnic groups. The performing arts have played an especially important role in Central Asian societies, where they evolved as didactic art forms within a religious context. Two main types of performance predominate throughout Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Mongolia: those related to shamanism and those derived from Buddhism. Music performed on drums and stringed instruments accompanied shamanistic trances, during which a person symbolically journeyed to the heavens or to the netherworld. The performance of Buddhist monastic dances and morality plays is also accompanied by various drums and horn instruments. In monastic dance, which is used to teach Buddhist dogma, elaborate costumes and masks signify grotesque devils, skeletons, Indian spiritual teachers, and the tutelary deities of the Buddhist pantheon. The morality play illustrates Buddhist history and folktales; complex scenarios, costumes and mask, and set dialogue are typical, and the mythological themes follow Indian theatre closely. The performing arts of the Turkic peoples are very different from these other traditions because of the influence of Islam. It is possible to distinguish three broad categories of style and influence in the visual arts. The tribes of Central Asia shared, for the most part, a nomadic Scytho-Altaic art favouring animal and hunting motifs. The widespread Scythian culture is seen best in the 6th-century BC Saka gold hoardsbelts, harnesses, and jewelryof the Pamirs. Contacts with the Greco-Roman world and with India, Iran, and China also left their mark; Hellenistic influence was most pronounced in Bactria and culminated in the Kushan style of Gandhara. The most important pre-Islamic influence on Central Asia's visual arts, however, was Buddhismboth Hinayana and Mahayana. Buddhist texts provided the subject matter for the ivory statuary of Begram; the two massive Buddhas cut into a cliff face at Bamian, Afg.; and the bas-reliefs of the Gandhara artists. Mahayana Buddhism, introduced from India in the 8th century, also stimulated the arts of Tibet and Nepal. Nepal's traditions in architecture and painting were adaptations of those of India, whether the themes were Hindu or Buddhist. But Nepalese forms in both architecture and painting tend to be smoother and more flowing and graceful than their Indian prototypes, if also less dynamic. Buddhist religious art was gradually introduced into Tibet from the 8th century, and a distinctive Tibetan imagery was subsequently developed. Tibet's religious art is primarily didactic and symbolic, and an understanding of its significance requires a knowledge of Tibet's idiosyncratic form of Buddhism. Additional reading Turkish literature Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta, vol. 2 (1965), a collection of monographs on literatures of Turkish-speaking peoplessee Alessio Bombaci, The Turkic Literatures: Notes on the History and Style; also his Letteratura turca (1969), an important survey with several chapters on Central Asian Turkish literature; Janos Eckmann, Chagatay Manual (1966), mainly a grammar containing selections of Central Asian literary texts and a vocabulary; Talat Tekin, A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic (1968), an excellent introduction to the language and literature of the Central Asian Turks before Islam; Sir Gerard Clauson, An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-13th Century Turkish (1972), and Turkish and Monogolian Studies (1962); and the Handbuch der Orientalistik, vol. 5, pt. 1 (1963), three important studies of the arts of the Central Asian peoples; E. Denison Ross, The Tonyukuk Inscription, Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies (London University), vol. 6 (1930), English translation of one of the oldest Turkish inscriptions. (Tibetan literature): J. Bacot, F.W. Thomas, and G.C. Toussaint, Documents de Touen-houang relatifs l'histoire du Tibet, (1940); J. Bacot, Trois mystres tibtains (1921); W.Y. Evans Wentz (ed.), Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (1935), The Tibetan Book of the Dead, 3rd ed. (1957), The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation (1954), Tibet's Great Yogi Milarepa, 2nd ed. (1951); H.V. Guenther, The Jewel Ornament of Liberation by sGam-po-pa (1959), and The Life and Teaching of Naropa (1963). E. Obermiller, History of Buddhism by Bu-ston (1931); G.N. Roerich, The Blue Annals of gZhon-nu-dpal (1949, 1953); D.S. Ruegg, The Life of Bu-ston Rin-po-che (1966); R.A. Stein, Tibetan Civilization (1972); G.C. Toussaint, Le Dict de Padma (1933); T.V. Wylie, The Geography of Tibet According to the 'Dzam-ling rgyas-bshad (1963). (Mongolian literature): Richard P. Lister, The Secret History of Genghis Khan (1969), a retelling of the ancient chronicle of Genghis' life and successors; Charles R. Bawden, The Mongol Chronicle Altan Tobci (1955), a translation with notes of a major native historical work incorporating folk elements; The Mongolia Society, Mongolian Folktales, Stories, and Proverbs in English Translation (1967), a small collection of typical old tales; Ts. Zhamtsarano, The Mongol Chronicles of the Seventeenth Century, trans. by Rudolf Loewenthal (1955), a description of five major historical chronicles; Walther Heissig, Mongolische Literature, in Altaistik, vol. 5 of the Handbuch der Orientalistik, pt. 2, pp. 227274 (1964), the best overall general sketch; Ludmilla K. Gerasimovich, History of Modern Mongolian Literature, 19211964 (1970; originally published in Russian), a careful survey of the modern decades and writers. Music Richard A. Waterman et al., Bibliography of Asiatic Musics, 13th installment, Notes of the Music Library Association, 8:100118 (1950); Mark Slobin, Zentralasien, in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, vol. 14 (1968), see sect. 1, Afghanistan and the Sedentary Population of Turkestan; and Record notes for Afghanistan, vol. 14, series Anthology of the World's Music, include photographs, musical illustrations; H.G. Farmer, Turkestani Music, Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., vol. 8, pp. 610612 (1954), historical background and general information; A. Huth, Instruments of East Turkestan, ibid., pp. 608610, historical background; Johanna Spector, Musical Tradition and Innovation, in Edward Allworth (ed.), Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule, pp. 434484 (1967), detailed information on Turkistani music, with emphasis on the court tradition, including excellent illustrations and charts. (Music of the Turkic nomads, Mongolia, and Siberia): Ernst Emsheimer et al., The Music of the Mongols (1943, reprinted 1971), the classic work; Mark Slobin, Kirgiz Instrumental Music (1969), detailed study of one Central Asian tradition. (Music of the Himalayan peoples): P. Crossley-Holland, Tibetan Music, Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 8, pp. 456464, a thorough basic survey; Luther G. Jerstad, Mani-rimdu: Sherpa Dance-Drama (1969), a thorough account of a specific Himalayan tradition. Dance and theatre Mircea Eliade, Le Chamanisme et les techniques archaques de l'extase (1951; 2nd ed., 1968; Eng. trans., Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, rev. ed., 1964), a classic study of the rituals, costumes, and symbolisms of shamanic performances; Luther G. Jerstad (op. cit.), an analytical and descriptive study of 'cham as performed in the Tengpoche monastery of northern Nepal. Materials and translations of some morality plays have been published by Marion H. Duncan in his Harvest Festival Dramas of Tibet (1955) and More Harvest Festival Dramas of Tibet (1967); and a study of the Moon-cuckoo play of the Mongols has been published in Japanese by Hidehiro Okada. Information on the performing arts may be found scattered in various other publications, but it is usually descriptive in nature and deals with only one genre. As yet no scholar has carried out a comprehensive analytical study of the origins and interrelations of dance and theatre in Central Asian regions. Visual arts Aleksandr Belenitsky, Central Asia (Eng. trans. 1969), a short general survey of the area and its art; M.P. Griaznov and A.P. Bulgakov, L'Art ancien de l'Altai (1958), a helpful introduction to the subject (in Russian and French); Basil Gray, Buddhist Cave Paintings at Tun-huang (1959), a scholarly study; Ren Grousset, L'Empire des steppes: Attila, Gengis-Khan, Tamerlan, 4th ed. (1960; Eng. trans., The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1970), and De la Grce la Chine (1948), especially useful historical surveys; Ormonde M. Dalton, The Treasure of the Oxus, 3rd ed. (1964), a specialized and authoritative survey of this collection of objects; Richard N. Frye, The Heritage of Persia (1962), a helpful widely embracing survey of the Persian culture; Bruno Dagens, Marc Le Berre, and Daniel Schlumberger, Monuments prislamiques d'Afghanistan (1964), an aid to understanding Kushan art; Karl Jettmar, Die frhen Steppenvlker (1964; Eng. trans., Art of the Steppes, 1967), a useful survey of nomadic animal art; Albert Von Le Coq, Auf Hellas Spuren in Oltturkistan (1926; Eng. trans., Buried Treasures of Chinese Turkestan, 1928), of great importance for the work in this area; Sergei Rudenko, Frozen Tombs of Siberia: The Pazyryk Burials of Iron Age Horsemen (1970; orig. pub. in Russian, 1953), indispensable to the student of Altaic nomads; Tamara Talbot Rice, The Ancient Arts of Central Asia (1965), a useful introduction to the subject; W.W. Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India (1938),still an indispensable work; David L. Snellgrove and Hugh E. Richardson, A Cultural History of Tibet (1968), a general work that helps to place the various expressions of Tibetan art in an historical contextthe index may be consulted for carving, metalwork, painting, and carpets; Giuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, 3 vol. (1949), the classic work on Tibetan religious painting; and Indo-Tibetica, 4 vol. (193241), a basic work (in Italian) for anyone seriously interested in Tibetan art, consisting largely of photographic plates, unobtainable elsewhere, and records of Tucci's early researches into Tibetan art history. George Roerich, Tibetan Paintings (1925), a useful introductory work containing 17 plates and detailed description; Walter Eugene Clark (ed.), Two Lamaistic Pantheons, 2 vol. (1937, reprinted in 1 vol., 1965), a detailed study of two sets of metal cast images useful for iconographic identifications; Alice Getty, The Gods of Northern Buddhism, 2nd ed. (1928, reprinted 1962), an old but useful work that relates the main Tibetan Buddhas and divinities to their corresponding forms in Indian, Chinese, and Japanese tradition; B.B. Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, 2nd ed. rev. (1958), an indispensable introduction; Stella Kramrisch, The Art of Nepal (1964), the first stylistic history; Pratapaditya Pal, Vaisnava Iconology in Nepal (1970), an important contribution to the structure of meaning in the images of Vishnu; David L. Snellgrove, Shrines and Temples of Nepal, Arts Asiatiques, 8:310, 93120 (1961); an introductory survey; D. Barrett, The Buddhist Art of Tibet and Nepal, Oriental Art (1957), a chronological study. Tamara Talbot Rice Mark S. Slobin Turrell V. Wylie Stella Kramrisch David Llewelyn Snellgrove John Richard Krueger Fahir Iz Music Music in Central Asia flowered along centuries-old caravan routes linking the Middle East with China and India via what is often referred to as Turkistan, the vast region extending from the Caspian Sea to Sinkiang province in China. Musical instruments diffused from one region to another, and many of the musical styles still display foreign influence. The variety of musical styles ranges from the systematically organized classical music of Turkistan to the notated religious chants of Tibet to the highly varied folk music styles of the region's numerous ethnic groups. The main thrust of this examination of Central Asian music will be on the traditions and styles first of Afghanistan and the sedentary population of Turkistan, then of the Turkic nomads, the Mongols, and the Siberian peoples, and finally of the Himalayan peoples in Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, and Sikkim. Afghanistan and the sedentary population of Turkistan This region of Central Asia includes Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and the oases of eastern (Chinese) Turkistan. The region lies within the Persian cultural area, and in the arts and in language the Persian imprint has endured over many centuries. In music the links with Persia appear most clearly in terminology and instruments. Islam, another Middle Eastern heritage, predominates in this region and results in a generally low social status for musicians and musical performancea situation generally not found in other regions of Central Asia. The area includes two main streams of musical practice: folk music in a broad range of styles, often closely linked to specific ethnic groups; and the more exclusive, cosmopolitan, classical music, derived from the medieval court music of Bukhara, Samarkand, and other urban centres of Transoxania (modern Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan). A third stream is now in the process of formation: popular music disseminated through the mass media.