DANCE

the movement of the body in a rhythmic way, usually to music and within a given space, for the purpose of expressing an idea or emotion, releasing energy, or simply taking delight in the movement itself. Dance is a powerful impulse, but the art of dance is that impulse channeled by skillful performers into something that becomes intensely expressive and that may delight spectators who feel no wish to dance themselves. These two concepts of the art of dancedance as a powerful impulse and dance as a skillfully choreographed art practiced largely by a professional feware the two most important connecting ideas running through any consideration of the subject. In dance, the connection between the two concepts is stronger than in some other arts, and neither can exist without the other. Although the above broad definition covers all forms of the art, philosophers and critics throughout history have suggested different definitions of dance that have amounted to little more than descriptions of the kind of dance with which each writer was most familiar. Thus, Aristotle's statement in the Poetics that dance is rhythmic movement whose purpose is to represent men's characters as well as what they do and suffer refers to the central role that dance played in classical Greek theatre, where the chorus through its movements reenacted the themes of the drama during lyric interludes. The English ballet master John Weaver, writing in 1721, argued on the other hand that Dancing is an elegant, and regular movement, harmoniously composed of beautiful Attitudes, and contrasted graceful Posture of the Body, and parts thereof. Weaver's description reflects very clearly the kind of dignified and courtly movement that characterized the ballet of his time, with its highly formalized aesthetics and lack of forceful emotion. The 19th-century French dance historian Gaston Vuillier also emphasized the qualities of grace, harmony, and beauty, distinguishing true dance from the crude and spontaneous movements of early man: The choreographic art . . . was probably unknown to the earlier ages of humanity. Savage man, wandering in forests, devouring the quivering flesh of his spoils, can have known nothing of those rhythmic postures which reflect sweet and caressing sensations entirely alien to his moods. The nearest approach to such must have been the leaps and bounds, the incoherent gestures, by which he expressed the joys and furies of his brutal life. John Martin, the 20th-century dance critic, almost ignored the formal aspect of dance in emphasizing its role as a physical expression of inner emotion. In doing so, he betrayed his own sympathy toward the Expressionist school of modern American dance: At the root of all these varied manifestations of dancing . . . lies the common impulse to resort to movement to externalise states which we cannot externalise by rational means. This is basic dance. A truly universal definition of dance must, therefore, return to the fundamental principle that dance is an art form or activity that utilizes the body and the range of movement of which the body is capable. Unlike the movements performed in everyday living, dance movements are not directly related to work, travel, or survival. Dance may, of course, be made up of movements associated with these activities, as in the work dances common to many cultures, and it may even accompany such activities. But even in the most practical dances, movements that make up the dance are not reducible to those of straightforward labour; rather, they involve some extra qualities such as self-expression, aesthetic pleasure, and entertainment. This article discusses the techniques and components of dance as well as the aesthetic principles behind its appreciation as an art. Various types of dance are discussed with emphasis on their style and choreography. The article dance, history of covers the history of dance in the West. For information on the character and history of dance in non-Western cultures, see the sections on dance or the performing arts in African arts: Dance; East Asian arts: Dance and theatre; Central Asian arts: Performing arts: dance and theatre; South Asian arts: Dance and theatre; Islamic arts: Dance and theatre; Oceanic arts: Music and dance; and Native American arts: Dance. The interaction between dance and other art forms is discussed in folk arts: Folk dance. a form of expression that utilizes bodily movements that are usually rhythmic, patterned (although they may be improvised), and accompanied by music. Dance seems to be one of the oldest of art forms, being found in virtually every culture and attested to in records of cultures long since extinct. Dance may be performed for a variety of motives: ceremonial, liturgical, magical, theatrical, social, or purely aesthetic. Dance is treated in a number of articles. For a general treatment of dance and its history chiefly in European cultures, see Dance, The Art of; Dance, The History of Western; Folk Arts: Folk dance. For discussions of dance forms and styles in non-European cultures, see African Arts: Dance; American Peoples, Arts of Native: Dance; Central Asian Arts: Performing arts: dance and theatre; East Asian Arts: Dance and theatre; Islamic Arts: Dance and theatre; Oceanic Arts: Music and dance; South Asian Arts: Dance and theatre; Southeast Asian Arts: The performing arts. Additional reading General works Anatole Chujoy and P.W. Manchester (comps. and eds.), The Dance Encyclopedia, rev. and enl. ed. (1967), a standard reference source with articles about all forms of dance, containing almost 300 photographs; G.B.L. Wilson, A Dictionary of Ballet, 3rd ed. (1974), a comprehensive reference source; and Curt Sachs, World History of the Dance (1937, reprinted 1965; originally published in German, 1933), a classic study of the dance in all forms, with special focus on origins, although some of Sachs's arguments have been challenged by more recent anthropological studies. Louis Horst, Pre-Classic Dance Forms (1937, reprinted 1968), a study of early dances; Richard Kraus and Sarah Alberti Chapman, History of the Dance in Art and Education, 2nd ed. (1981); and Walter Sorell, Dance in Its Time (1981), analyze the subject within a wide cultural and social context. Roger Copeland and Marshall Cohen (eds.), What Is Dance?: Readings in Theory and Criticism (1983), is a collection of essays on the nature of dance and its different styles and forms. Physiological aspects of dance and the mechanics of human movements are discussed in Kenneth Laws, The Physics of Dance (1984). Choreography Contemporary works on choreography include Frederick Rand Rogers (ed.), Dance, a Basic Educational Technique: A Functional Approach to the Use of Rhythmics & Dance as Prime Methods of Body Development & Control, and Transformation of Moral & Social Behavior (1941, reprinted 1980); Peggy Van Praagh and Peter Brinson, The Choreographic Art: An Outline of Its Principles and Craft (1963); La Meri (Russell Meriwether Hughes), Dance Composition: The Basic Elements (1965); and Doris Humphrey, The Art of Making Dances (1959, reprinted 1981). Reflections on the creative process involved in some of the choreographer's major dance works can be found in Mary Wigman, The Language of Dance (1966; originally published in German, 1963). Dance notation One of the first inventors of dance notation, Raoul-Auger Feuillet, showed the floor pattern of dances in his work Orchesography (1706, reprinted 1971; originally published in French, 1700). Other early works on the subject include Arthur Saint-Lon, La Stnochorgraphie: Ou, art d'crire promptement la danse (1852); and V.I. Stepanov, Alphabet of Movements of the Human Body: A Study in Recording the Movements of the Human Body by Means of Musical Signs (1958, reissued 1969; originally published in French, 1892). Modern works include Rudolf Benesh and Joan Benesh, An Introduction to Benesh Movement-Notation: Dance, rev. and extended ed. (1969); Noa Eshkol and Abraham Wachmann, Movement Notation (1958), supplemented with Movement Notation Survey 1973: Eshkol-Wachmann Movement Notation (1973); and Noa Eshkol, Michal Shoshani, and Mooky Dagan, Movement Notations: A Comparative Study of Labanotation (Kinetography Laban) and Eshkol-Wachmann Movement Notation (1979). Current studies of dance notation are found in the periodicals Ballet News (monthly); and Dance Notation Journal (semiannual). Theatrical aspects of dancing Mary Clarke and Clement Crisp, Making a Ballet (1974), offers observations on the different relationships between choreographers and dancers, designers, and composers, and their Design for Ballet (1978) is a lavishly illustrated survey of costume and set design. Merle Armitage (ed.), Martha Graham, the Early Years (1937, reprinted 1978); and Le Roy Leatherman, Martha Graham: Portrait of the Lady as an Artist (1966), explore the nature of this prominent choreographer's work. See also David Vaughan, Frederick Ashton and His Ballets (1977); and Merce Cunningham, Changes: Notes on Choreography, edited by Frances Starr (1969). For the analysis of technical components of dance as theatre, see Elizabeth R. Hayes, Dance Composition and Production for High Schools and Colleges (1955, reissued 1981); Cyril W. Beaumont and Stanislas Idzikowski, A Manual of the Theory and Practice of Classical Theatrical Dancing (Classical Ballet) (Cecchetti Method), rev. ed. (1977); and articles on the technical aspects of the art in Dance Chronicle: Studies in Dance and the Related Arts (quarterly). Ballet Development of the ballet as a theatre art is reflected in the early writings of some dancing masters such as Cesare Negri Milanese, Nuove inventioni di balli: opera vaghissima (1604; reissued in 1969 as Le gratie d'amore), a richly illustrated treatise. See also Claude Franois Mnestrier, Des Ballets anciens et modernes selon les rgles du thtre (1682, reprinted 1972), the first printed history of the ballet; Deryck Lynham, The Chevalier Noverre: Father of Modern Ballet (1950, reprinted 1972), a biographical history; and Thophile Gautier, The Romantic Ballet as Seen by Thophile Gautier, trans. from French by Cyril W. Beaumont (1932, reprinted 1980). Lincoln Kirstein, Dance: A Short History of Classic Theatrical Dancing (1935, reprinted 1970), and Movement & Metaphor (1970, reissued as Four Centuries of Ballet, 1984), are brilliant analyses of the component parts of ballet and its developments, based on a wide survey of works. An authoritative historical study is Joan Lawson, A History of Ballet and Its Makers (1964, reprinted 1976). Selma Jeanne Cohen, Next Week, Swan Lake: Reflections on Dance and Dances (1982), is a witty and illuminating discussion of some basic issues in dance criticism. For the analysis of ballet techniques, see Jean-Georges Noverre, Letters on Dancing and Ballets (1930, reissued 1966; originally published in French, rev. ed. 180304), a reformer's statement of the principles of ballet techniques, which are still valid; and Carlo Blasis, An Elementary Treatise upon the Theory and Practice of the Art of Dancing (1944; originally published in French, 1820), a book by an Italian dancer and choreographer who codified the techniques of classic ballet. For the librettos of most famous ballets, see Cyril W. Beaumont, Complete Book of Ballets: A Guide to the Principal Ballets of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, rev. ed. (1949, reprinted 1956), supplemented with his Ballets of Today (1954), and Ballets, Past & Present (1955); and Walter Terry, Ballet Guide: Background, Listings, Credits, and Descriptions of More Than Five Hundred of the World's Major Ballets (1982). Contributions of the Russian ballet are discussed by Richard Buckle, Diaghilev (1979, reprinted 1984), and Nijinsky, 2nd ed. (1975); and by Natalia Roslavleva, Era of the Russian Ballet (1966, reprinted 1979). Modern dance Various aspects of modern dance and its forms are studied in Walter Terry, The Dance in America, rev. ed. (1971, reprinted 1981); Walter Sorell, The Dance Has Many Faces, 2nd ed. (1966); and John Martin, Introduction to the Dance (1939, reissued 1965), especially good on the theory of the early modern dance. Also see Selma Jeanne Cohen (ed.), The Modern Dance: Seven Statements of Belief (1966, reprinted 1973), a collection of essays by important choreographers; Sally Banes, Terpsichore in Sneakers: Post-Modern Dance (1980), a survey of the subject; and Joseph H. Mazo, Prime Movers: The Makers of Modern Dance in America (1977), which contains useful analyses of many choreographers' works. Current research in choreography is presented in the periodicals Dancing Times (monthly); Dance Research Journal (semiannual); and Dance Magazine (monthly). Indian classical dance Analysis of regional dancing is found in Kay Ambrose, Classical Dances and Costumes of India, 2nd ed. (1983), a well-documented description of basic forms and styles; Beryl De Zoete, The Other Mind: A Study of Dance in South India (1953, reissued 1960); and Rina Singha and Reginald Massey, Indian Dances: Their History and Growth (1967), a well-illustrated guide. Folk and social dance Folk dance is the subject of Cecil J. Sharp and A.P. Opp, The Dance: An Historical Survey of Dancing in Europe (1924, reprinted 1972); and Joan Lawson, European Folk Dance (1953, reprinted 1980). Periodicals include Arabesque: A Magazine of International Dance (bimonthly); American Square Dance (monthly); and Square Dancing (monthly). Social and ballroom dances are analyzed in Arthur H. Franks, Social Dance: A Short History (1963); and Philip J.S. Richardson, The Social Dances of the Nineteenth Century in England (1960). Judith R. Mackrell Components of the dance The dancer Physical requirements Dancers are not just performing artists; their bodies are also the instruments through which the art is created. The quality of this art, therefore, necessarily depends on the physical qualities and skills that dancers possess. The stronger and more flexible a dancer's body, the more capable it is of a wide range of movement. Nearly all professional dancers start training at a young age in order to shape and develop their bodies correctly. Strength is built up in the right muscles, for example, and the bone-connecting ligaments on which flexibility of the joints is so dependent are lengthened early before they begin to harden. As well as strength and mobility, a good dancer must also possess great coordination (the ability to work different parts of the body together), a highly developed kinesthetic awareness (in order to know and control the position and state of the body), control over weight and balance in motion, a developed awareness of space, a strong sense of rhythm, and an appreciation of music. Particularly in dramatic dance, the dancer must be able to project movement clearly and make its expressive qualities intelligible to the audience. Grace, fluidity, and harmony of body are also frequently desired in the dancer, as is physical beauty, but these are subjective qualities that differ from one culture to another and change according to fashion. (Today's physical ideal of the ballerinalong-limbed and slenderis quite different from the late 19th-century preference for a more rounded figure.) The importance of training Though modern avant-garde choreographers sometimes work with untrained dancers to take advantage of the qualities of natural, untutored movement, most dancers in the West are trained either in a strict technique based on classical ballet or in techniques introduced by the 20th-century modern-dance choreographers Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham. (Other kinds of dance, such as jazz or tap, are usually taught in conjunction with these techniques.) Training generally begins early, between eight and 12 years of age for girls and 14 for boys, although some ballet dancers and many more modern dancers begin later. Ballet training closely follows the rules published in 1828 by the Italian dancing master Carlo Blasis in his Code of Terpsichore. Blasis advocated at least three hours of dance classes a day, involving exercises that progressively developed different parts of the body. Daily classes are necessary not only to mold the body and develop the necessary physical skills but also to maintain the body in its proper condition and prevent injury. Many dance movements make strenuous and unnatural demands on the joints, muscles, and tendons, and it is easy to strain or damage them if the body is not properly maintained. Some bodies are more suitable for training than others, and in the West many aspiring dancers undergo extensive medical scrutiny to ensure that they have no weaknesses or disabilities, such as a weak or crooked spine, that would make them unfit for dancing. The exercises involved in a dancer's training depend on the style of the dance. Ballet dancers have to work hard to attain a full turnout (the outward rotation of the legs in the hip socket so that the heels touch back to back and the feet form a 180 angle), which enables them to lift their legs high in the air in jumps or arabesques. While ballet dancers rarely use the torso, African dancers and certain modern dancers have to be extraordinarily supple in the torso and pelvis in order to execute the ripples, twists, and percussive thrusts that their particular dances require. Indian classical dancers, while developing great strength and flexibility in the legs, must also achieve great control over the face and neck muscles and flexibility and control in the joints and muscles of the hands. This is necessary to execute their elaborate mudras, conventional symbolic gestures, with accuracy and grace.