DRAWING AND QUARTERING

part of the penalty anciently ordained in England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment for the crime included the following: the condemned person was dragged to the place of execution, hanged by the neck (but not until he was dead), and disemboweled (or drawn) while still alive; his entrails were burned before his eyes; he was decapitated; and his body was divided into four parts (or quartered). This punishment was first inflicted in 1283 on the Welsh prince David and in 1305 on the Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace. In 1803 Edward Marcus Despard and his six accomplices were hanged, drawn, and quartered for conspiring to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though not carried out) upon two Irish Fenians in 1867. History of drawing Western As an artistic endeavour, drawing is almost as old as mankind. In an instrumental, subordinate role, it developed along with the other arts in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Whether preliminary sketches for mosaics and murals or architectural drawings and designs for statues and reliefs within the variegated artistic production of the Gothic medieval building and artistic workshop, drawing as a nonautonomous auxiliary skill was subordinate to the other arts. Only in a very limited sense can one speak of centres of drawing in the early and High Middle Ages; that is, the scriptoria of the monasteries of Corbie and Reims in France, as well as those of Canterbury and Winchester in England, and also a few places in southern Germany, where various strongly delineatory (graphically illustrated) styles of book illumination were cultivated. 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries In the West, the history of drawing as an independent artistic document began toward the end of the 14th century. If its development was independent, however, it was not insular. Just as the greatest draftsmen have been for the most part also distinguished painters, illustrators, sculptors, or architects, so the centres and the high points of drawing have generally coincided with the leading localities and the major epochs of the other arts. Moreover, the same stylistic phenomena have been expressed in drawing as in other art forms. Indeed, drawing shares with other art forms the characteristics of individual style, period style, and regional features. Drawing differs, however, in that it interprets and renders these characteristics in terms of its own unique mediums. Drawing became an independent art form in northern Italy, at first quite within the framework of ordinary studio activity. But with nature studies, copies of antiques, and drafts in the various sketchbooks (those of Giovannino de'Grassi, Antonio Pisanello, and Jacopo Bellini, for example), the tradition of the Bauhtten studio workshop changed to individual work: the place of exempla, models, reproduced in formalized fashion was now being taken by subjectively probing and partially creative drawings. In the early 15th century the international Soft Style of the period still largely predominated over the draftsman's individual handwriting. At mid-century, however, the differentiation of drawing style according to region and the artist's personality set in. Essential criteria, destined to remain characteristic for generations, begin to strike the eye. In drawing produced north of the Alps, the characteristic features lie in the tendency to pictorial compactness and precise execution of detail. Many painters produced individual drawings, but the most notable draftsmen are the otherwise unidentified 15th-century German Master of the Housebook and his contemporary Martin Schongauer. Both of these artists were also major copperplate engravers, so that it is not always easy to determine whether the work is a preliminary sketch or an independent drawing. In Italian Renaissance drawings, of which there are a great many, the diverging stylistic features of the various artistic regions were particularly evident. What they had in common was the overwhelming importance of the sketch and the study, in contrast to the far rarer finished drawings. The formal and thematic connection with painting is very close even when it was not a question of preliminary drawings. The draftsmen of Venice and northern Italy preferred an open form with loose and interrupted delineation in order to achieve even in drawing the pictorial effect that corresponded to their painters' imagination. In central Italy, on the other hand, and especially in Florence, it was the clear contour that predominated, the closed and firmly circumscribed form, the static and plastic character. Corresponding to the functional purpose of drawing, the individual artists' studios (which, as was the case with the Medicis' Academy of St. Mark, also had to engage in general educational and humanistic investigations) formed the most significant centres of art drawing. In these large studios, drawing served not only for the probing realization of creative ideas, it was not only study and mediator between the conception and the master's finished work; it functioned also as teaching aid for the assistants who worked with the master and as a vehicle for the formation and preservation of an individual workshop tradition. Although Leonardo's scientific interests were expressed in a large number of drawings, his ideal concept of the human figure is much more frequently preserved in the drawings of his collaborators and successors than in his own. Raphael and Michelangelo were also outstanding draftsmen. Each of them used drawing in order to allow his thoughts about individual works to mature; each had a highly personal drawing style, the one with a soft and rounded stroke, the other with a sculptor's intermittent and powerful stroke. Probably a great deal of drawing was done in Raphael's studio, especially if only for the preparation of the engravings after Raphael's compositions. From Michelangelo's hand came the first so-called connoisseur drawings that are esteemed as a personal document. They are the precursors of the collector's drawings that began in the later 16th century (autonomous works, destined for collections). North of the Alps the autonomy of drawing was championed in the first instance by Drer, an indefatigable draftsman who mastered all techniques and exercised an enduring and widespread influence. The delineatory constituent clearly predominates even in his paintings. This corresponds to the general stylistic character of 16th-century German art, within which Matthias Grnewald, with his freer, broader, and therefore more pictorial style of drawing, and the painters of the Danube school, with their ornamentalizing and agitated stroke, represent significant exceptions. In their metamorphosing of the perceived reality into drawings, the landscapes of Altdorfer and Wolf Huber in particular are astonishing documents of a feeling for nature that might almost be called Romantic. Soberer, incredibly compact in their pictorial concept and yet akin to the Renaissance in their objective viewing, were the portrait drawings of Hans Holbein, the Younger, whose sojourns in 16th-century England proved stimulating to other artists as well. Similar, if less personal than Holbein because of the stricter linearity of their work, were the drawings of the French portraitists Jean and Franois Clouet. In the Low Countries, where they were combined with the idealized image of Italy (as in the drawings of Lucas van Leyden), Drer's methods gained lasting popularity in the landscape drawings and studies after life by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Drawing acquired a pivotal significance in the period of Mannerism (c. 15251600), both as a document of artistic invention and as a means of its realization. Jacopo Pontormo in Florence, Parmigianino in northern Italy, and Tintoretto in Venice used point and pen as essential and spontaneous vehicles of expression. Their drawings were clearly related to their painting, both in content and in the graphic method of sensitive contouring and daringly drawn foreshortening.