EXILE AND BANISHMENT

prolonged absence from one's country imposed by vested authority as a punitive measure. Exile and banishment probably originated among early peoples as a means of punishment. The offender was made an outcast and deprived of the comfort and protection of his group. Exile was practiced by the Greeks chiefly in cases of homicide, although ostracism (q.v.) was a form of exile imposed for political reasons. In Rome, exile (exsilium) was originally a means to circumvent the death penalty. Before a death sentence was pronounced, a Roman citizen could escape by voluntary exile. Later, exile applied to all gradations of expulsion, whether it was temporary or permanent and whether citizenship was lost and property confiscated or not. In general, the Romans determined punishment by class: banishment was for the upper classes and forced labour for the lower. From the Anglo-Saxon penalty of outlawry, English law developed the practice of banishing criminals as an alternative to capital punishment. By the 18th century, European countries were removing criminals to penal colonies in America, Australia, and Siberia (see penal colony). In the 20th century, political reasons became a frequent basis for exile. See also deportation.