FLUID

any liquid or gas or generally any material that cannot sustain a tangential, or shearing, force when at rest and that undergoes a continuous change in shape when subjected to such a stress. This continuous and irrecoverable change of position of one part of the material relative to another part when under shear stress constitutes flow, a characteristic property of fluids. In contrast, the shearing forces within a solid, held in a twisted or flexed position, are maintained; the solid undergoes no flow and can spring back to its original shape. Compressed fluids can spring back to their original shape, too, but while compression is maintained, the forces within the fluid and between the fluid and the container are not shear forces. The fluid exerts an outward pressure, called hydrostatic pressure, that is everywhere perpendicular to the surfaces of the container. Various simplifications, or models, of fluids have been devised since the last quarter of the 18th century to analyze fluid flow. The simplest model, called a perfect, or ideal, fluid, is one that is unable to conduct heat or to offer drag on the walls of a tube or internal resistance to one portion flowing over another. Thus, a perfect fluid, even while flowing, cannot sustain a tangential force; that is, it lacks viscosity and is also referred to as an inviscid fluid. Some real fluids of low viscosity and heat conductivity approach this behaviour. Fluids of which the viscosity, or internal friction, must be taken into account are called viscous fluids and are further distinguished as Newtonian fluids if the viscosity is constant for different rates of shear and does not change with time. The viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids either varies with the rate of shear or varies with time, even though the rate of shear is constant. Fluids in a class in this last category that become thinner and less viscous as they continue to be stirred are called thixotropic fluids. in physiology, a water-based liquid that contains the ions and cells essential to body functions and transports the solutes and products of metabolism. Water, the principal constituent of fluids in animals, including humans, is taken into the body orally in foods and liquids and, to a lesser extent, is produced by the oxidation of food during metabolism. The average adult human takes in between 2,100 and 3,400 ml (2.2 and 3.6 quarts) of water per day. Water is lost from the body principally through the urine, although sweat and the skin and respiratory tract are also major routes of water loss. Under normal conditions, the average intake and output of water is about equal; under extreme physical stresses, however, such as prolonged exercise, daily water loss may be increased up to three-fold. The fluids of the body may be classified into two main divisions: the fluid within cells ( intracellular fluid) and the fluid outside the cell (extracellular fluid). The extracellular fluid can be further divided into interstitial fluid, plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and milk (in mammals). Extracellular fluids bathe the cells and conduct nutrients, cells, and waste products throughout the tissues of the body. Mature red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets lie in a nearly colourless, protein-rich liquid called plasma. This substance is diffused through the capillary walls to the tissues of the body, carrying with it nutrients, oxygen, and regulatory molecules and drugs; some plasma diffuses back into the blood capillaries, bringing with it wastes, carbon dioxide, and metabolites. Interstitial fluid (so called because it is found in the interstices between cells) is almost identical to plasma but is very low in protein concentration. Interstitial fluid that enters the lymphatic system through lymph capillaries in the interstitial spaces is called lymph. This substance is filtered through lymph nodes rich in white blood cells and then returned to the blood circulatory system through large lymph ducts. Lymph maintains the fluid level in the body, fights infection, and, by filtering through the gastrointestinal tract, absorbs and transports fats. Cerebrospinal fluid, as its name suggests, surrounds and bathes the cavities of the brain and spinal cord. It also maintains intracranial pressures and acts as a lubricant and a mechanical barrier against shock. This fluid flows slowly from the ventricles of the brain, the principal site of its formation, down through the canals of the brain stem, and ultimately out into the tissue spaces surrounding the central nervous system. A clear, colourless liquid, cerebrospinal fluid is slightly alkaline, having a pH of 7.37.4. It is about 99 percent water and contains a small number of leukocytes and no red blood cells. In addition to the functions mentioned above, it circulates drugs and removes pathogens, chemicals, and waste products from the tissues of the brain and spinal cord and carries them into the bloodstream. Milk is secreted by the milk-producing glands located in the breasts of female mammals. The large fat droplets secreted by these glands into the fluid of the breast produces the familiar white emulsion. The principal cations (sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium), anions (chloride, bicarbonate, organic acids, phosphate, and proteins), and solutes (e.g., proteins and glucose) of the body are not dispersed evenly throughout bodily fluids. Intracellular fluid contains relatively large quantities of potassium, phosphate, and proteins, and extracellular fluid contains relatively large quantities of sodium and chloride ions and smaller concentrations of proteins than found in intracellular fluids. These solute and ion gradients contribute to maintaining the equilibrium of the fluid and the electrical potential of the membranes. The system that regulates the intake and output of fluid and the individual's perception of fluid regulation involves the heart, kidneys, vagus nerve, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland. The hormones associated with this system are vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), adrenocorticotropic hormone, and aldosterone, which act in the kidneys to effect the increased retention of salt and water. Various conditions can cause an excess or depletion of water or salts or an unhealthy hydrogen ion concentration in the body. Sodium depletion can instigate low blood pressure, reduced urine volume, and inhibition of the excretory system leading to kidney failure. Mild cases may be treated by having the affected person drink salt water. In severe cases salt water is injected into a vein. Acute or chronic diarrhea, vomiting, intestinal fistulae, or various urinary abnormalities bring about potassium deficiencies. Symptoms are apathy, confusion, and weakness; severe cases may produce paralysis, changes in heartbeat, and even death. Potassium must be given either orally or intravenously. Potassium intoxication, which may follow upon kidney failure, causes reduction in the volume of urine excreted, producing symptoms much like those of potassium depletion. Treatment is by elimination of potassium-rich foods (especially fruits) and protein from the diet. Edema is the abnormal retention of body fluids in body tissues. Low blood volume initiates a flow of fluid out of the blood vessels into the surrounding tissue, and the system that regulates the volume of water in the body responds by a series of hormonal changes that swell the volume of water in the tissues even more. Alkalosis is a condition of excess alkalinity of the blood resulting from a loss of hydrogen ions. Acidosis is a condition of excess acidity of the blood, resulting from an overabundance of hydrogen ions.