HIGH-PRESSURE PHENOMENA

changes in physical, chemical, and structural characteristics that matter undergoes when subjected to high pressure. Pressure thus serves as a versatile tool in materials research, and it is especially important in the investigation of the rocks and minerals that form the deep interior of the Earth and other planets. Pressure, defined as a force applied to an area, is a thermochemical variable that induces physical and chemical changes comparable to the more familiar effects of temperature. Liquid water, for example, transforms to solid ice when cooled to temperatures below 0C (32F), but ice can also be produced at room temperature by compressing water to pressures roughly 10,000 times above atmospheric pressure. Similarly, water converts to its gaseous form at high temperature or at low pressure. In spite of the superficial similarity between temperature and pressure, these two variables are fundamentally different in the ways they affect a material's internal energy. Temperature variations reflect changes in the kinetic energy and thus in the entropy of vibrating atoms. Increased pressure, on the other hand, alters the electron interaction energy of atomic bonds by forcing atoms closer together in a smaller volume. Pressure thus serves as a powerful probe of atomic interactions and chemical bonding. Furthermore, pressure is an important tool for synthesizing dense structures, including superhard materials, novel solidified gases and liquids, and mineral-like phases suspected to occur deep within the Earth and other planets. Numerous units for measuring pressure have been introduced and, at times, are confused in the literature. The atmosphere (atm; approximately 1.034 kilograms per square centimetre [14.7 pounds per square inch], equivalent to the weight of about 760 millimetres [30 inches] of mercury) and the bar (equivalent to one kilogram per square centimetre) are often cited. Coincidently, these units are almost identical (1 bar = 0.987 atm). The pascal, defined as one newton per square metre (1 Pa = 0.00001 bar), is the official SI (Systme International d'Units) unit of pressure. Nevertheless, the pascal has not gained universal acceptance among high-pressure researchers, perhaps because of the awkward necessity of using the gigapascal (1 GPa = 10,000 bars) and terapascal (1 TPa = 10,000,000 bars) in describing high-pressure results. In everyday experience, greater-than-ambient pressures are encountered in, for example, pressure cookers (about 1.5 atm), pneumatic automobile and truck tires (usually 2 to 3 atm), and steam systems (up to 20 atm). In the context of materials research, however, "high pressure" usually refers to pressures in the range of thousands to millions of atmospheres. Studies of matter under high pressure are especially important in a planetary context. Objects in the deepest trench of the Pacific Ocean are subjected to about 0.1 GPa (roughly 1,000 atm), equivalent to the pressure beneath a three-kilometre column of rock. The pressure at the centre of the Earth exceeds 300 GPa, and pressures inside the largest planets-Saturn and Jupiter-are estimated to be roughly 2 and 10 TPa, respectively. At the upper extreme, pressures inside stars may exceed 1,000,000,000 TPa. Additional reading P.W. Bridgman, The Physics of High Pressure, new impression with supplement (1949), remains the major source of information on high-pressure history and technology prior to its publication. Maila L. Walters, Science and Cultural Crisis (1990), surveys Percy Bridgman's accomplishments. Robert M. Hazen, The New Alchemists: Breaking Through the Barriers of High Pressure (1993), reviews the history of high-pressure research, particularly efforts to synthesize diamond. Collected papers from several biannual conferences of the International Association for High-Pressure Research are available in B. Vodar and Ph. Marteau (eds.), High Pressure Science and Technology, 2 vol. (1980); C. Homan, R.K. MacCrone, and E. Whalley (eds.), High Pressure in Science and Technology, 3 vol. (1984); N.J. Trappeniers et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the Xth AIRAPT International High Pressure Conference on Research in High Pressure Science & Technology (1986); and W.B. Holzapfel and P.G. Johannsen (eds.), High Pressure Science and Technology (1990). Efforts in the Earth sciences are reviewed by S. Akimoto and M.H. Manghnani (eds.), High-Pressure Research in Geophysics (1982); and M.H. Manghnani and Yasuhiko Syono (eds.), High-Pressure Research in Mineral Physics (1987). Robert M. Hazen