MUSICAL FORM

the structure of a musical composition. The term is regularly used in two senses: to denote a standard type, or genre, and to denote the procedures in a specific work. The nomenclature for the various musical formal types may be determined by the medium of performance, the technique of composition, or by function. Additional reading Comprehensive treatments of form in Western music are Hugo Leichtentritt, Musikalische Formenlehre, 3rd ed. (1927; Eng. trans., Musical Form, 1951); and R.E. Tyndall, Musical Form (1964); a shorter treatment is in Grosvenor Cooper, Learning to Listen (1957). For form in traditional and non-Western music, see Bruno Nettl, Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents (1965); Music in Primitive Culture (1956); and William P. Malm, Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East and Asia (1967). See also, generally, the relevant articles in Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. rev. (1969), a good source on any musical subject; Donald Jay Grout, A History of Western Music (1960), the best general history of music to date; Adam Carse, The History of Orchestration (1925, reprinted 1964), a detailed look at the evolution of the orchestra and musical instruments; Nicolas Rimsky-Korsakov, Principles of Orchestration, with Musical Examples Drawn from His Own Works, ed. by Maximilian Steinberg, 1 vol. (1964; originally published in Russian, 1910), still one of the best texts for the serious student; Romain Goldron, Ancient and Oriental Music (1968), examples of non-Western music and instruments. Later monographs include David Epstein, Beyond Orpheus: Studies in Musical Structure (1979); and Ethan Mordden, A Guide to Orchestral Music: The Handbook for Non-Musicians (1980).