NORTH GERMANIC LANGUAGES

Distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe. also called Scandinavian languages group of Germanic languages consisting of modern standard Danish, Swedish, Norwegian (Dano-Norwegian and New Norwegian), Icelandic, and Faroese. These languages are usually divided into East Scandinavian (Danish and Swedish) and West Scandinavian (Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese) groups. Additional reading A survey of research on Scandinavian languages is presented in Einar Haugen and Thomas L. Markey, The Scandinavian Languages: Fifty Years of Linguistic Research (19181968) (1972). Einar Haugen, Scandinavian Language Structures (1982), is a comparative survey of the languages. Lars S. Vikr, The Nordic Languages: Their Status and Interrelations (1993), is a sociologically oriented introduction to the Scandinavian speech communities. Various important contributions, mainly on the grammar of the Scandinavian languages in the context of modern linguistics, are found in a series of conference volumes entitled The Nordic Languages and Modern Linguistics (irregular); the conferences began in 1969. Ernst Hkon Jahr and Ove Lorentz (eds.), Phonology (1981), Prosody (1983), Morphology (1985), Syntax (1989), and Historical Linguistics (1993), collects articles on the Norwegian language published during the last century and more. Compact histories of all the languages are presented in Elias Wessen, Die nordischen Sprachen, trans. from Swedish (1968); and Einar Haugen, The Scandinavian Languages: An Introduction to Their History (1976). Detailed histories include Didrik Arup Seip, Norsk sprkhistorie til omkring 1370, 2nd ed. (1955), also available in a German translation, Norwegische Sprachgeschichte, ed. and expanded by Laurits Saltveit (1971), for Old Norwegian; Peter Skautrup, Det danske sprogs historie, 4 vol. and index (194470), for Danish; Elias Wessen, Svensk sprkhistoria, 3 vol. in various editions (1965), for Swedish; Gustav Indreb, Norsk mlsoga (1951), for Norwegian; and Einar Haugen, Language Conflict and Language Planning (1966), for the modern Norwegian period. Jan Terje Faarlund, Syntactic Change: Toward a Theory of Historical Syntax (1990), deals mainly with the Scandinavian languages in a theoretical perspective.The classic grammars of the older languages are Adolf G. Noreen, Altislndische und altnorwegische Grammatik, 5th ed. (1970), and Altschwedische Grammatik (1904, reprinted 1978); and Johannes Brndum-Nielsen, Gammeldansk grammatik i sproghistorisk fremstilling, 5 vol. in various editions (193565). For introductory purposes the best grammar is Sigrid Valfells and James E. Cathey, Old Icelandic: An Introductory Course (1981). The most comprehensive grammars for the modern languages are Paul Diderichsen, Elementr dansk grammatik, 3rd ed. (1968), and his compendium Essentials of Danish Grammar (1964); and Aage Hansen, Moderne dansk, 3 vol. (1967), for Danish; Adolf Noreen, Vrt sprk, 7 vol. (190324), for Swedish; Jan Terje Faarlund, Svein Lie, and Kjell Ivar Vannebo, Norsk referansegrammatikk (1997), for Dano-Norwegian and New Norwegian; Kristjn rnason, slensk mlfrdhi, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (198283), for Icelandic; and W.B. Lockwood, An Introduction to Modern Faroese (1955, reprinted 1977). Introductory textbooks for English-speaking users are Robin Allan, Philip Holmes, and Tom Lundskaer-Nielsen, Danish: A Comprehensive Grammar (1995); Philip Holmes and Ian Hinchliffe, Swedish: A Comprehensive Grammar (1994); Einar Haugen and Kenneth G. Chapman, Spoken Norwegian, 3rd ed. (1982), for Dano-Norwegian; Peter Hallarker, Norwegian, Nynorsk: An Introduction for Foreign Students (1983), for New Norwegian; and Jn Fredhjnsson, A Course in Modern Icelandic, 2 vol. (1978).There are many-volumed native dictionaries for each language. Only some bilingual dictionaries are listed here: Jens Axelsen (ed.), The Standard Danish-English, English-Danish Dictionary (1986); Vincent Petti et al., Norstedts Comprehensive Swedish-English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1993), and Norstedts Comprehensive English-Swedish Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1994); Willy A. Kirkeby, English-Norwegian Dictionary (1995), and Norsk-engelsk ordbok, 2nd ed. (1986); Einar Haugen (ed.), Norwegian English Dictionary, 4th ed. (1995), with entries in both the Norwegian languages; Arngrmur Sigurdhsson, Icelandic-English Dictionary, 4th ed. (1983); G.T. Zoga, English-Icelandic Dictionary, 3rd ed. (1945, reprinted 1954); and Annfinnur Skla, Jonhard Mikkelsen, and Zakarias Wang, Ensk-froysk ordhabk (1992). Einar Haugen Jan Terje Faarlund