SIDEBAR: THE REVISIONIST CASE

by Robert Dallek Was there a back door to World War II, as some revisionist historians have asserted? According to this view, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, inhibited by the American public's opposition to direct U.S. involvement in the fighting and determined to save Great Britain from a Nazi victory in Europe, manipulated events in the Pacific in order to provoke a Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, thereby forcing the United States to enter the war on the side of Britain. The revisionist case: From neutrality to war How did Roosevelt precipitate the conflict with Japan and prepare the country for war in Europe? The revisionists argue that key events leading up to the U.S. declaration of war in 1941 show that Roosevelt sometimes used deceitful tactics to increase U.S. involvement gradually and to stir up pro-war sentiments in the American public. In their view, the circumstances immediately surrounding the attack on Pearl Harbor, when interpreted in light of Roosevelt's behaviour in the preceding years, strongly suggest that he intentionally provoked the Japanese attack. As World War II began with Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939, Congress and much of the American public continued to favour neutrality. Convinced that their country's participation in World War I had been a grave mistake, Americans supported a series of neutrality laws enacted in the 1930s to prevent a repetition of the pre-1917 events that drew the United States into the fighting. Although he was well aware that the public wanted America to stay out of the war, Roosevelt was determined to do all he could to prevent a German victory. Relying on the public's sympathy for Britain and France, he persuaded Congress to revise the 1935 Neutrality Act, which prohibited loans and arms sales to belligerent nations, in order to allow the two countries to purchase arms on a cash and carry basisthat is, on the condition that they pay immediately in cash and transport the arms themselves. He argued that the revision was the best way both to keep the United States out of the war and to guarantee a British-French victory. After the fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt looked for other means to prevent Britain's defeat. Raising the specter of a German invasion of the Western hemisphere, he convinced Congress to enact the first peace-time draft in U.S. history. Although he justified the measure as necessary for national security, the revisionists contend that it was not purely defensive; in fact, they argue, it was a major step in preparing the United States to enter the war in Europe. About the same time, following negotiations with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Roosevelt agreed to transfer 50 World War I-era U.S. destroyers to Britain in exchange for 99-year leases on eight British naval and air bases in the Western hemisphere. Again, Roosevelt characterized the agreement as a defensive measure, describing it as the most important action in the reinforcement of our national defensesince the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. For the revisionists, however, the deal decisively ended American neutrality and made U.S. involvement in the war inevitable. In this view they are in agreement with Churchill, who believed that the exchange set in motion a process that no one could stop. Like the Mississippi, Churchill said, it just keeps rolling along. To support their contention that Roosevelt was secretly plotting to bring the United States into the war, the revisionists point to rhetoric he used during his 1940 reelection campaign. During the contest against the Republican nominee Wendell Willkie, Roosevelt repeatedly declared his intention to keep America out of war unless it was attacked by a foreign power. Later, in response to Willkie's warnings that the president's reelection would mean wooden crosses for American boyswho, he said, were already almost on the transportsand an October surge in the polls that brought Willkie to within four percentage points of the president, Roosevelt made an unqualified promise to a Boston audience on October 30: I have said this before, but I shall say it again and again and again: Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars. He did not explain that if the country were attacked by one of the Axis powers, the war would no longer be foreign. With his reelection in 1940, Roosevelt believed he had a blank check to push the country closer to war, according to the revisionists. In a December fireside chat, he reiterated his determination to keep the country out of the fighting but also emphasized that the best path to this end was through unrestricted aid to Britain, declaring that we must be the great arsenal of democracy. Having won the approval of 80 percent of his listening audience, he looked for ways to ensure that Britain got the war materiel that American factories were increasingly able to provide. In response to Churchill's declaration earlier that year that the moment was fast approaching when we shall no longer be able to pay cash for shipping and other supplies, Roosevelt proposed the lend-lease program, which authorized the president to provide aid to the British on the condition that after the fighting they would return in kind the guns and ships loaned to them. It was, Roosevelt told a press conference, the same as lending a garden hose to a neighbour to help put out a fire that could burn down your house as well as his. In the midst of your neighbour's crisis, you would not ask him for the cost of the hose; rather, you would lend it to him on the understanding that you would get it backor it would be replaced if it was destroyedonce the fire was doused. Although Congressional approval and White House implementation of lend-lease made the United States all but a belligerent in the fighting, it proved insufficient to bring the nation directly into the war. Throughout 1941, according to the revisionists, Roosevelt was trying mightily to find a convincing rationale for directly entering the European conflict. After the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in June and incidents in the North Atlantic between German submarines and two American shipsthe freighter Robin Moor and the destroyer GreerRoosevelt ordered the Navy to escort convoys of American and later Allied ships and to shoot German and Italian warships on sight. Despite the existence of an undeclared naval war between Germany and the United States, however, Roosevelt hesitated to ask for a formal declaration, because most of the American public still supported neutrality. At this point, according to the revisionists, he believed that he could obtain a public consensus in favour of war only if the country were attacked by a foreign power. He allegedly created this consensus by provoking the Japanese into the attack on Pearl Harbor. As the revisionists describe it, Roosevelt purposefully increased tensions between Washington and Tokyo by introducing embargoes in 194041 on scrap metals and petroleum products that Japan needed for its war machine. By the fall of 1941, according to the revisionists, American policy makers had concluded that Japan would attack the U.S. fleet in Hawaii in the belief that the United States would then seek a settlement in the Pacific, thereby freeing Japan to create an East Asian co-prosperity sphere. Although Roosevelt and his closest advisers in the state, war, and Navy departments knew that an attack was imminent, the revisionists argue, they did not alert the military, believing that a surprise attack would create an overwhelming consensus for involvement in both the European and Pacific wars. As evidence of Roosevelt's duplicity, they cite the fact that the administration failed to notify the military of decoded Japanese messages indicating that an attack would take place on December 67. Among the first historians to argue in favour of the back-door-to-war theory were Charles Beard, author of American Foreign Policy in the Making, 19321940 (1946) and President Roosevelt and the Coming of the War, 1941 (1948), and Charles C. Tansill, author of Back Door to War: The Roosevelt Foreign Policy, 19331941 (1952). Half a century later, journalist and presidential candidate Patrick J. Buchanan gave continuing life to the theory by insisting in his book A Republic, Not an Empire (1999) that, contrary to accepted opinion, the United States need not have fought in World War II. The country was forced into a conflict with the Axis powers only by Roosevelt's determination to aid Britain and Russia against Hitler. Without American involvement in the fighting, Buchanan argued, Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia would have destroyed each other, thereby sparing the world the post-1945 Cold War. The mainstream response Most historians have rejected the claims of Beard, Tansill, and Buchanan as reductionist and unconvincing. These historians do agree that Roosevelt engaged in deception and manipulation to advance his foreign policies and that he was prevented from seeking a formal declaration of war in the first years of the fighting because of continued public support for U.S. neutrality. Nevertheless, they argue that this does not show that Roosevelt intentionally provoked the Japanese to attack the United States or that he allowed the country to be surprised at Pearl Harbor. The problem of public opinion Although there is no question that Roosevelt was concerned about public support for entering the war, this was not because he thought that he could not obtain a declaration without itin late 1941, before the Pearl Harbor attack, he had enough votes in Congress to pass a formal declaration of war. Rather, according to most historians, his concern was that Americans would not be able to sustain such an enormous effort, with all its sacrifice of blood and treasure, unless they were united in the spirit of a moral crusade. Accordingly, in his major foreign policy decisions regarding the war in Europe in 194041, he was careful not to commit the country to greater involvement in the fighting than public opinion would support. The draft, the destroyer-bases exchange, the lend-lease program, convoying, and economic sanctions against Japan were all undertaken with Roosevelt's belief that the public regarded them as vital to American national security. Contrary to the revisionist view, most historians regard these incremental decisions not as attempts to drag the country into the war but rather as efforts by Roosevelt to exercise all other options, in keeping with his deep reluctance to enter the fighting without the firm support of the American public. Although Roosevelt did admit to Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that it would have been difficult to gain public support for war without the Japanese attack, nevertheless, according to most historians, he actually tried to avoid a war with Japan throughout 1941, fearing that it would limit America's aid to Britain and lengthen the struggle against Germany. For example, in a discussion of the American embargo on Japan at a cabinet meeting on November 7, 1941, he said that the administration should strain every nerve to satisfy and keep on good relations with Japanese negotiators. He told Secretary of State Cordell Hull not to let the talks deteriorate and break up if you can possibly help it. Let us make no move of ill will. Let us do nothing to precipitate a crisis. Warnings of a Japanese attack Roosevelt and his advisers did foresee a Japanese military action on December 67. Nevertheless, most historians agree that they did not know where the attack would come. Intercepted Japanese diplomatic and military messages indicated an attack somewhere, but information suggesting that the target would be British, Dutch, or French possessions in southeast Asia obscured other information suggesting Pearl Harbor. Moreover, as most historians point out, it is implausible to think that Roosevelt, a former assistant secretary of the Navy, would have exposed so much of the U.S. fleet to destruction at Pearl Harbor had he known an assault was coming. If his only purpose was to use a Japanese attack to bring the United States into the war, he could have done so with the loss of just a few destroyers and some airplanes. In fact, he was genuinely surprised by the target, if not the timing, of the Japanese attack. According to one scholar, Roberta Wohlstetter, this was partly the consequence of a tendency among U.S. military leaders to see the fleet in Hawaii as a deterrent rather than a target. It was also the result of a failure by U.S. military intelligence to measure Japanese capabilities accurately: the Americans did not believe that Japanese air and naval forces could mount a successful attack on U.S. bases in Hawaii. Most historians believe that there was no back door to war and no conspiracy to trick the American public into a conflict it did not wish to fight in either Europe or Asia. American involvement in World War II, they argue, was the consequence of the country's rise to global power and the resulting need to combat aggressive, undemocratic regimes that were hostile to American institutions and to the survival of the United States as a free country. However, the controversy has continued to be relevant in American political debate. Despite suggestions that Congress was validating the theory, its defense authorization bill in 2000 included a provision that would absolve Admiral Husband Kimmel and General Walter Short, the military commanders at Pearl Harbor, of any blame for Japan's attack, declaring that they were not provided necessary and critical intelligence that would have alerted them to prepare for the attack.