SPACE-TIME

by Albert Einstein The revolution of modern physics began to be reflected in the Encyclopdia Britannica in the Twelfth Edition (1922), with James (later Sir James) H. Jeans' article on "Relativity." In the Thirteenth Edition (1926) a wholly new topic, "Space-Time," was discussed by the person most qualified in all the world to do so, Albert Einstein. The article is challenging but rewarding. space-time in physical science, single concept that recognizes the union of space and time, posited by Albert Einstein in the theories of relativity (1905, 1916). Common intuition previously supposed no connection between space and time. Physical space was held to be a flat, three-dimensional continuumi.e., an arrangement of all possible point locationsto which Euclidean postulates would apply. To such a spatial manifold, Cartesian coordinates seemed most naturally adapted, and straight lines could be conveniently accommodated. Time was viewed independent of spaceas a separate, one-dimensional continuum, completely homogeneous along its infinite extent. Any now in time could be regarded as an origin from which to take duration past or future to any other time instant. Within a separately conceived space and time, from the possible states of motion one could not find an absolute state of rest. Uniformly moving spatial coordinate systems attached to uniform time continua represented all unaccelerated motions, the special class of so-called inertial reference frames. The universe according to this convention was called Newtonian. By use of a four-dimensional space-time continuum, another well-defined flat geometry, the Minkowski universe (after Hermann Minkowski), can be constructed. In that universe, the time coordinate of one coordinate system depends on both the time and space coordinates of another relatively moving system, forming the essential alteration required for Einstein's special theory of relativity. The Minkowski universe, like its predecessor, contains a distinct class of inertial reference frames and is likewise not affected by the presence of matter (masses) within it. Every set of coordinates, or particular space-time event, in such a universe is described as a here-now or a world point. Apparent space and time intervals between events depend upon the velocity of the observer, which cannot, in any case, exceed the velocity of light. In every inertial reference frame, all physical laws remain unchanged. A further alteration of this geometry, locally resembling the Minkowski universe, derives from the use of a four-dimensional continuum containing mass points. This continuum is also non-Euclidean, but it allows for the elimination of gravitation as a dynamical force and is used in Einstein's general theory of relativity (1916). In this general theory, the continuum still consists of world points that may be identified, though non-uniquely, by coordinates. Corresponding to each world point is a coordinate system such that, within the small, local region containing it, the time of special relativity will be approximated. Any succession of these world points, denoting a particle trajectory or light ray path, is known as a world line, or geodesic. Maximum velocities relative to an observer are still defined as the world lines of light flashes, at the constant velocity c. Whereas the geodesics of a Minkowski continuum (without mass-point accelerations) are straight lines, those of a general relativistic, or Riemannian, universe containing local concentrations of mass are curved; and gravitational fields can be interpreted as manifestations of the space-time curvature. However, one can always find coordinate systems in which, locally, the gravitational field strength is nonexistent. Such a reference frame, affixed to a selected world point, would naturally be in free-fall acceleration near a concentrated mass. Only in this region is the concept well definedi.e., in the neighbourhood of the world point, in a limited region of space, for a limited duration. Its free-fall toward the mass is due either to an externally produced gravitational field or to the equivalent, an intrinsic property of inertial reference frames. Mathematically, gravitational potentials in the Riemannian space can be evaluated by the procedures of tensor analysis to yield a solution of the Einstein gravitational field equations outside the mass points themselves, for any particular distribution of matter. The first rigorous solution, for a single spherical mass, was carried out by a German astronomer, Karl Schwarzschild (1916). For so-called small masses, the solution does not differ appreciably from that afforded by Newton's gravitational law; but for large masses the radius of space-time curvature may approach or exceed that of the physical object, and the Schwarzschild solution predicts unusual properties. Astronomical observations of dwarf stars eventually led the American physicists J. Robert Oppenheimer and H. Snyder (1939) to postulate super-dense states of matter. These, and other hypothetical conditions of gravitational collapse, were borne out in later discoveries of pulsars and neutron stars. They also have a bearing on black holes thought to exist in interstellar space. Other implications of space-time are important cosmologically and to unified field theory.