TENURE

length and conditions of office in civil, judicial, academic, and similar services. Security of tenure, usually granted in the civil service and in academic appointments after a probationary period, is considered an essential condition of maintaining the independence and freedom of those services from political or partisan control. Judges in the permanent judiciary, for example, hold office during good behaviouri.e., for life. Tenure, in services in which it is granted, can be terminated only on grounds of serious misconduct, incompetence, or misbehaviour. Such allegations have to be considered by a duly constituted body. In the civil service such bodies are usually disciplinary committees and tribunals; in academic appointments they are often collegial boards of peers or such overseeing bodies as trustees and university senates. The tenure of permanent judges can be terminated only by impeachment and conviction by legislatures. The conditions as well as the duration of tenure and the manner of its guarantee vary. In the civil services of most countries tenure is granted until a specified age of retirement, which generally ranges from age 50 to 60 years. Judges, in many instances, are appointed for life but may choose to retire earlier. Professors may also have continuous or indefinite tenure. Protection of tenure for civil servants is afforded by administrative measures and for judges by means of constitutional and statutory provisions. Security of tenure and freedom from external control, particularly in the academic profession, are also insured by a tradition of independence and an ethos of tolerance in addition to guarantees by law and regulation.