FAIR-TRADE LAW

in the United States, any law allowing manufacturers of branded or trademarked goods (or in some instances distributors of such products) to fix the actual or minimum resale prices of these goods by resellers. The designation fair-trade law is peculiar to the United States; the practice described in them is known elsewhere as price maintenance (q.v.) or resale price maintenance. When first tested in U.S. courts in 1922, resale price maintenance agreements were found to violate the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 with its prohibition of monopolies. In countries lacking such prohibitions, especially in Great Britain, the practice became widespread, enforced by trade associations and groups of trade associations; but in the United States the practice was limited in interstate commerce to the mere suggestion of prices to dealers, without effective power of enforcement. A turning point came in the United States when the California Fair Trade Act of 1931 was amended in 1933 to include a so-called nonsigners' clause, whereby prices agreed upon by a manufacturer and contracting dealers were made binding upon all resellers. Influenced by the depressed markets of the 1930s, 44 states enacted similar laws, which were intended to protect independent retailers from price-cutting by large chain stores and thus prevent the loss of employment in the distributive trades. These statutes were supported in 1937 by the passage of the Miller-Tydings Amendment to the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, which exempted price maintenance agreements from antitrust laws. When World War II began, U.S. manufacturers had more authority over pricing than thoses in most other countries. By the 1960s, the complexity of marketing channels in the highly industrialized countries made enforcement of such agreements by manufacturers impracticable, and the practice entered a worldwide decline. At the same time, increasing doubts as to its propriety caused it to be banned or severely limited in some countries. In the United States, as opposition to fair-trade laws gained ground, many states repealed them, and in 1975 the few that remained were repealed by an act of Congress.