NAVAL SHIP

the chief instrument by which a nation extends its military power onto the seas. Warships protect the movement over water of one's own military forces to coastal areas where they may be landed and used against enemy forces; warships protect one's own merchant shipping against enemy attack; they prevent the enemy from using the sea to transport his own military forces; and they attack the enemy's merchant shipping. Naval ships are also used in blockadei.e., in attempts to prevent an enemy from importing by sea the commodities necessary for his prosecution of the war. In order to accomplish these objectives, naval ships have been designed from earliest times to be faster and sturdier than merchant ships and to be capable of carrying offensive weapons. In the modern era the word craft has come to denote small surface vessels that operate usually in coastal waters. This article traces the development of the major surface warships and craft from their beginnings to the present day. For a discussion of submarines, which operate below the surface, see submarine. Detailed discussion of weapons used by warships can be found in other articles. For early naval cannon, see military technology; for guided antiship and antiaircraft missiles, see rocket and missile system; for naval airplanes, jets, and helicopters, see military aircraft. Additional reading Naval ships and craft are the subject of voluminous literature. For early history, William Ledyard Rodgers, Naval Warfare Under Oars, 4th to 16th Centuries (1939, reprinted 1967), and Greek and Roman Naval Warfare (1937, reprinted 1973), are older but still the most comprehensive sources on the classical era. J.S. Morrison and J.F. Coates, The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship (1986), treats in detail design evolution and technological developments. John H. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 6491571 (1988), explores both military and commercial navigation in the region. John Francis Guilmartin, Jr., Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century (1974), examines the way in which gunpowder changed the nature of warfare on land as well as at sea. Philip Cowburn, The Warship in History (1965); Richard Hough, Fighting Ships (1969); and Donald MacIntyre and Basil W. Bathe, The Man-of-War: A History of the Combat Vessel, rev. ed. (1974), discuss and illustrate the general evolution of the warship from early to modern times. John F. Guilmartin, Jr.The modern era is covered in Peter Hodges, The Big Gun: Battleship Main Armament, 18601945 (1981); Norman Friedman, Battleship Design and Development, 19051945 (1978), and Modern Warship: Design and Development (1979); and David R. Frieden (ed.), Principles of Naval Weapons Systems (1985). Historical characteristics of the major navies of the world are found in Roger Chesneau and Eugene M. Kolesnik (eds.), Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 18601905 (1979); Robert Gardiner and Randal Gray (eds.), Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 19061921 (1985); Roger Chesneau (ed.), Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 19221946 (1980); and Robert Gardiner (ed.), Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 19471982, 2 vol. (1983). For characteristics by country, see: (United States): Norman Polmar, Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, 14th ed. (1987); Norman Friedman, U.S. Battleships (1985), and U.S. Cruisers (1984); and Paul H. Silverstone, U.S. Warships Since 1945 (1987); (Great Britain): D.K. Brown, A Century of Naval Construction: The History of the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors, 18831983 (1983); and Alan Raven and John Roberts, British Cruisers of World War Two (1980), and British Battleships of World War Two (1976). (Other countries): John Jordan, Soviet Warships: The Soviet Surface Fleet, 1960 to the Present (1983); Norman Polmar, Guide to the Soviet Navy, 4th ed. (1986); Henri Le Masson, The French Navy, 2 vol. (1969); Hansgeorg Jentschura, Dieter Yung, and Peter Mickel, Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 18691945 (1977; originally published in German, 1970); and Erich Grner (ed.), Die deutschen Kriegsschiffe, 18151945 (1982 ), with six out of a projected seven volumes published by 1988.On aircraft carriers, see David Brown, Aircraft Carriers (1977); Roger Chesneau, Aircraft Carriers of the World, 1914 to the Present: An Illustrated Encyclopedia (1984); Norman Friedman, Carrier Air Power (1981), U.S. Aircraft Carriers: An Illustrated Design History (1983), and British Carrier Aviation: The Evolution of the Ships and Their Aircraft (1988). Norman Friedman The age of big gun and torpedo From the late 19th century through World War I, the greatest driving force in warship development was the rivalry between the big gun and the torpedo. Improvements in these weapons had immense influence on the design and use of surface warships, from the huge dreadnought battleships to the small torpedo boat. Armament Guns By 1900 a major change had occurred in the handling of the very heavy main guns, those of 11 to 13.5 inches calibre that fired shells weighing up to 1,300 pounds. In the 1890s such weapons often fired no faster than once every five minutes, compared to the five to 10 rounds per minute fired by a six-inch gun. As power control became easier and more precise, the big guns became more effective. By 1900 it was possible for a 12-inch gun to fire one or two aimed shots per minute. Meanwhile, the standard of heavy-gun marksmanship began to improve. Although rifled guns had grown bigger and muzzle velocity had increased throughout the late 19th century, there had been no corresponding improvement in fire control. For this reason, effective battle ranges had not extended much beyond 3,000 to 4,000 yards. Then it was discovered that a ship's roll and pitch could be systematically compensated for, so that each shot could be fired at the same angle to the sea and reach almost exactly the same range. Greater accuracy could be achieved by firing groups of shells, or salvos, bunched around the estimated range. The pattern of splashes raised by a salvo would then make corrections possible. By the end of World War I, fire control had improved enough that guns firing 15,000 to 20,000 yards could attain a hit rate of 5 percent. This meant that a ship firing 10 heavy guns at the rate of once or twice per minute could expect a hit after two or three minutes. Increased range was valuable for two reasons. First, a ship that could hit at ranges beyond the capabilities of its enemies could stand off and destroy them at leisure. Second, improved gun range increased protection against the new, longer-range torpedoes.