NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES

those languages that are indigenous to the United States and subarctic Canada and that are spoken north of the Mexican border. A number of language groups within this area, however, extend as far south as Central America. The present article focuses on the native languages of Canada and the United States. (For further information on the native languages of Mexico and Central America, see Meso-American Indian languages; for most of the languages of Arctic America, see Eskimo-Aleut languages.) The Indian languages of North America are both numerous and diverse. Their original number has been estimated at 300; these tongues were spoken by a native population of approximately 1.5 million. The number of languages still used was estimated at about 200 by the American linguist Wallace Chafe in 1962. Some of these had only one or two elderly speakers. The numbers continue to drop, but with some notable exceptions; e.g., Navajo is steadily increasing in number of speakers. As a consequence of the growing trend toward extinction in the American Indian languages, the field of study is becoming more concerned with the past than with the future. Even so, the rich diversity of these languages provides a valuable laboratory for linguistic theory; certainly the discipline of linguistics could not have developed as it has, especially in the United States, without the Native American languages. In this article, the present tense will be used in referring to both extinct and surviving languages. Within the diversity of the North American Indian languages, no general characterization is possible; various features of structure are common to them, but there is no feature or complex of features shared by all. At the same time, there is nothing primitive about these languages. They draw upon the same linguistic resources and display the same regularities and complexities as do the languages of Europe. If historical connections are sought among the Indian tongues, some languages clearly show numerous and systematic resemblances comparable to those between Spanish, French, and Italian. These similarities strongly suggest classification as a linguistic family. North American Indian languages can then be grouped into some 57 families. On this level, too, the diversity of some areas is notable. Thirty-seven families lie west of the Rocky Mountains and 20 in California alone; California thus shows more linguistic variety than all of Europe. Some families seem to be related to each other in more remote historical groupings, often called phyla. Such classifications border on speculation, however, partly because data are lacking on many languages (because they are extinct or still unstudied) and partly because of the difficulty in distinguishing, at the deeper historical levels, between resemblances caused by common origin and those resulting from linguistic borrowing. In any case, no theory of common origin for the North American Indian languages has become established. Although most anthropologists believe that North America was populated mainly by people who migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait land bridge, attempts to relate Native American languages to Asian languages have not gained general acceptance. (There is one possible exceptionthe relationship of Eskimo-Aleut languages to certain Siberian languages.) The linguistic diversity of native North Americans suggests, indeed, that the area was populated as a result of several waves of migration by peoples of distinct linguistic stocks of Asia; these stocks may have no modern survivors. Additional reading J.W. Powell, Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico, U.S. Bureau of American Ethnology, 7th Annual Report (1891), pp. 1142, the first comprehensive classification; Franz Boas, Handbook of American Indian Languages, 3 pt. (1911, 1922, and 193338), a classic introduction, with sketches of sample languages; Harry Hoijer et al., Linguistic Structures of Native America (1946), a summary of work on language classification and sketches of languages; C.F. and F.m. Voegelin, Map of North American Indian Languages, rev. ed. (1966), presents the classification used in this article; Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, vol. 10, North America (1973), surveys of different aspects of the field, with extensive bibliographies (see especially the valuable article of Joel Sherzer, Areal Linguistics in North America); M.R. Haas, The Prehistory of Languages (1969), a discussion of the principles in the historical study of American Indian languages; Wallace Chafe, Estimates Regarding the Present Speakers of North American Indian Languages, International Journal of American Linguistics, 28:162171 (1962), and 31:345346 (1965), gives data used in the present article; Edward Sapir, Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality (1949), articles on the relationship of language and culture in aboriginal North America; B.L. Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings (1956), classic articles on American Indian language and worldview. William O. Bright