PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION

movement that took form in Europe and the United States during the late 19th century as a reaction to the alleged narrowness and formalism of traditional education. One of its main objectives was to educate the whole childthat is, to attend to physical and emotional, as well as intellectual, growth. The school was conceived of as a laboratory in which the child was to take an active partlearning through doing. The theory was that a child learns best by actually performing tasks associated with learning. Creative and manual arts gained importance in the curriculum, and children were encouraged toward experimentation and independent thinking. The classroom, in the view of Progressivism's most influential theorist, the American philosopher John Dewey, was to be a democracy in microcosm. The sources of the progressive education movement lay partly in European pedagogical reforms from the 17th through the 19th century, ultimately stemming partly from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's mile (1762), a treatise on education, in the form of a novel, that has been called the charter of childhood. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Rousseau's theories were given practical application in a number of experimental schools. In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow established the Philanthropinum at Dessau (1774), and Friedrich Froebel founded the first kindergarten at Keilhau (1837). In Switzerland, Johann Pestalozzi dedicated himself, in a succession of schools, to the education of poor and orphaned children. Horace Mann and his associates worked to further the cause of universal, nonsectarian education in the United States. Throughout the late 19th century, a proliferation of experimental schools in England extended from Cecil Reddie's Abbotsholme (1889) to A.S. Neill's Summerhill, founded in 1921. On the European continent some pioneers of progressive educational methods were Maria Montessori in Italy; Ovide Decroly in Belgium; Adolphe Ferrire in Geneva; and Elizabeth Rotten in Germany. The progressive educational ideas and practices developed in the United States, especially by John Dewey, were joined with the European tradition after 1900. In 1896 Dewey founded the Laboratory Schools at the University of Chicago to test the validity of his pedagogical theories. From its earliest days progressive education elicited sharp and sustained opposition from a variety of critics. Humanists and idealists criticized its naturalistic orientation, its Rousseauean emphasis on interesting and freeing the child, and its cavalier treatment of the study of classic literature and classical languages.