TROUBLES, TIME OF

Russian Smutnoye Vremya, period of political crisis in Russia that followed the demise of the Rurik dynasty (1598) and ended with the establishment of the Romanov dynasty (1613). During this period foreign intervention, peasant uprisings, and the attempts of pretenders to seize the throne threatened to destroy the state itself and caused major social and economic disruptions, particularly in the southern and central portions of the state. The Time of Troubles was preceded by a series of events that contributed to the country's instability. In 1598 Fyodor, the last in the line of the Rurik dynasty, died; he was succeeded as tsar of Russia by his brother-in-law Boris Godunov. Boris was faced with problems of famine (160103), boyar opposition, and the challenge of a Polish-supported pretender to the throne, the so-called False Dmitry, who claimed to be Dmitry, half brother of the late tsar and legitimate heir to the throne. (The real Dmitry had died in 1591.) Boris was able to maintain his regime, but when he died (April 1605), a mob favouring the False Dmitry killed Boris' son and made Dmitry tsar (June 1605). The boyars, however, soon realized that they could not control the new tsar, and they assassinated him (May 1606), placing the powerful nobleman Vasily Shuysky on the throne. This event marked the beginning of the Time of Troubles. Although Shuysky was supported by the wealthy merchant class and the boyars, his rule was weakened by a series of revolts, the most important of which was a peasant rebellion led by the former serf Ivan Isayevich Bolotnikov in the southern and eastern sections of the country. Shuysky also had to contend with many new pretenders, particularly the Second False Dmitry, who was supported by the Poles, small landholders, and peasants. Claiming to have escaped assassination in 1606 and recognized by the wife of the First False Dmitry as her husband, the new Dmitry established a camp at Tushino (1608) and besieged Moscow for two years. A group of boyars, including the Romanovs, joined him at Tushino, forming a government there that rivaled Shuysky's. While elements of Dmitry's army took control of the northern Russian provinces, Shuysky bargained with Sweden (then at war with Poland) for aid. The arrival of Swedish mercenary troops caused Dmitry to flee from Tushino. Some of his supporters returned to Moscow; others joined the Polish king Sigismund III, who declared war on Muscovy in response to the Swedish intervention and in September 1609 led an army into Russia and defeated Shuysky's forces (June 1610). Disappointed with Shuysky, the Muscovites deposed him; and the conservative boyars, fearing the rule of Dmitry, whose supporters desired radical social changes, agreed (August 1610) to accept the compact already made between Sigismund and the boyars who had been at Tushino, named Wladyslaw (son of the Polish king) tsar-elect, and welcomed Polish troops into Moscow. Dmitry, however, was killed by his own allies (December 1610), and Sigismund, changing his mind, demanded direct personal control of Russia and continued the Polish invasion (autumn 1610). This finally stimulated the Russians to rally and unite against the invader. The first resistance, an allianceinstigated by the patriarch Hermogenbetween small landholders led by Prokopy Petrovich Lyapunov and some Cossacks, quickly disintegrated. But it was followed in October 1611 by a new movement, composed of landowners, Cossacks, and merchants. Prince Dmitry Mikhaylovich Pozharsky led the army, and the merchant Kuzma Minin handled the finances. The army advanced toward Moscow and, threatened by the approach of Polish reinforcements, attacked and captured the garrison (October 1612). The following year a widely representative zemsky sobor (assembly of the land) elected a new tsar, Michael Romanov, establishing the dynasty that ruled Russia for the next three centuries.