CHINESE CIVIL SERVICE

the administrative system of the traditional Chinese government, the members of which were selected by a competitive examination. The Chinese civil-service system gave the Chinese empire stability for more than 2,000 years and provided one of the major outlets for social mobility in Chinese society. It later served as a model for the civil-service systems that developed in other Asian and Western countries. The Ch'in dynasty (221-206 BC) established the first centralized Chinese bureaucratic empire and thus created the need for an administrative system based on talent to staff it. Recruitment into the Ch'in bureaucracy was based on recommendations by local officials. This system was initially adopted by the succeeding Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220), but in 124 BC, under the reign of the Han emperor Wu-ti, an imperial university was established to train and test officials in the techniques of Confucian government. The Sui dynasty (581-618) adopted this Han examination system and applied it in a much more systematic way as a method of official recruitment. They also introduced the rule that officials of a prefecture must be appointees of the central government rather than local aristocrats and that the local militia was to be subject to officials of the central government. The T'ang dynasty (618-907) created a system of local schools where scholars could pursue their studies. Those desiring to enter the upper levels of the bureaucracy then competed in the chin-shih exams, which tested a candidate's knowledge of the Confucian Classics. This system gradually became the major method of recruitment into the bureaucracy; by the end of the T'ang dynasty, the old aristocracy was destroyed, and its power was taken by the scholar-gentry, who staffed the bureaucracy. This nonhereditary elite would eventually become known to the West as "mandarins," in reference to Mandarin, the dialect of Chinese they employed. The civil-service system expanded to what many consider its highest point during the Sung dynasty (960-1279). Public schools were established throughout the country to help the talented but indigent, business contact was barred among officials related by blood or marriage, relatives of the imperial family were not permitted to hold high positions, and promotions were based on a merit system in which a person who nominated another for advancement was deemed totally responsible for that person's conduct. Almost all Sung officials in the higher levels of the bureaucracy were recruited by passing the chin-shih degree, and the examinations became regularly established affairs. After 1065 they were held every three years, but only for those who first passed qualifying tests on the local level. Under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the civil-service system reached its final form, and the succeeding Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911/12) copied the Ming system virtually intact. During this period no man was allowed to serve in his home district, and officials were rotated in their jobs every three years. The recruitment exam was divided into three stages: the hsiu-ts'ai ("cultivated talent"), or bachelor's degree, held on the local-prefecture level; the ch-jen ("recommended man"), given at the prefectural capital; and the chin-shih, held at Peking. Although only the passage of the chin-shih made one eligible for high office, passage of the other degrees gave one certain privileges, such as exemption from labour service and corporal punishment, government stipends, and admission to upper-gentry status (ch-jen). Elaborate precautions were taken to prevent cheating, different districts in the country were given quotas for recruitment into the service to prevent the dominance of any one region, and the testing matter was limited to the Nine Classics of Confucianism. The examination became so stylized that the set form for an examination paper came to be the famous "eight-legged essay" (pa-ku wen-chang), which had eight main headings, used not more than 700 characters, and dealt with topics according to a certain set manner. It had no relation to the candidate's ability to govern and was often criticized for setting a command of style above thought. The examination system was finally abolished in 1905 by the Ch'ing dynasty in the midst of modernization attempts. The whole civil-service system as it had previously existed was overthrown along with the dynasty in 1911/12.