CUNEIFORM LAW

the body of laws revealed by documents written in cuneiform, a system of writing invented by the ancient Sumerians and used in the Middle East in the last three millennia BC. It includes the laws of the majority of the inhabitants of the ancient Middle Eastespecially the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Elamites, Hurrians, Kassites, and Hittiteswho, despite many ethnic differences, were in contact with each other and developed similar civilizations. In certain periods this cultural community was reinforced by the diffusion of Akkadian, a diplomatic and scholastic language written in cuneiform. Thus, it is not arbitrary to classify the laws of these civilizations as cuneiform; indeed, it is a scientific necessity, because no other term covers all and only these laws. Mesopotamian law, for example, captures only part of the range of laws involved, and the notion of ancient Middle Eastern law is too vast, for it also includes both Judaic law and Egyptian law, which were separate developments (though some scholars see a relationship between biblical law and cuneiform law). The various collections of cuneiform laws developed by the several nations and kingdoms have certain features in common: (1) The text of several collections contains a prologue and an epilogue in which the prince emphasizes the importance of his actions, explains the object of his work, and commands its observance by blessings or threats. (2) Although written as if inspired by the gods, the legislation is secular, composed of dispositions fixed and codified by the temporal lord. (3) Although the laws may derive from different sourcescustom, judicial decisions, or deliberate legislationthe fact that they are introduced by the prince gives them all the character of legislation or enactment. (4) In contrast to modern codes, these ancient codes do not systematically treat all the rules applicable to a given area of law; that is, they treat a variety of matters but often ignore many highly important rules, simply because such rules were grounded so deeply in custom that they went unquestioned. (5) Because legal customs were generally known, the collections focused on explaining individual cases, using them as examples or precedents, and did not attempt to present general, abstract formulas. (6) Because of this absence of doctrinal intent, the arrangement of cases seems erratic and often defies modern interpretation. Here it is possible only to illustrate some of the major extant laws or codes. The most ancient legislator known is Ur-Nammu, the founder of one of the Sumerian dynasties at the city of Ur. His code, dating from the middle of the 21st century BC, dealt with witchcraft, the flight of slaves, and bodily injuries. A more ample vestige of Sumerian law is the so-called Code of LipitIshtar (c. 193424 BC), which contains the typical prologue, articles, and epilogue and deals with such matters as the rights of persons, marriages, successions, penalties, and property and contracts. Although earlier Babylonian codes are known, unquestionably the most perfect monument of Babylonian law is the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1758 BC), the main record of which was discovered on a stele, or stone monument, only in 190102. At the top of the stele, a low relief represents the king in prayer before the god of justice; the laws are engraved beneath it in no less than 282 paragraphs, apart from the prologue and epilogue. The fact that copies of parts of the code have been discovered in other nations scattered over a millennium of time confirms that the code had a lasting importance in the ancient Middle East, even in countries where it no longer was in force. Like some other Middle Eastern codes, the Code of Hammurabi deals consecutively with penal law, the law of persons, family law, and price lists. It differs from earlier codes, as well as from the earliest laws of Greece and Rome, with regard to the relative importance of laws concerning property and other economic matters. Indeed, Babylonian society of the 1st dynasty was, in terms of its individualism, a wealth of private property, and development of commercial exchange, far more modern than Roman society of the early republic. The laws of Assyria, though created later than the Babylonian laws, summon up the image of a less-developed society. The existing tablets, dating from the 15th to the 13th century BC (before the rise of the Assyrian empire), deal with personal property, landed property, and women and families. The laws reflect a society that was patriarchal and rather strict. The Hittite Law Code, dating from about the 14th century BC, reflects the Hittite's closed rural economy and feudal aristocracy. Hittite penal laws, though less severe than those in Assyria, are noteworthy for the very heavy pecuniary compensations they imposed.