DANCE, HISTORY OF

history of Western dance from ancient times to the 20th century and including the development of ballet, the waltz, and various types of modern dance. The peoples of the Westof Europe and of the countries founded through permanent European settlement elsewherehave a history of dance characterized by great diversity and rapid change. Whereas most dancers of the East repeated highly refined forms of movement that had remained virtually unchanged for centuries or millennia, Western dancers showed a constant readiness, even eagerness, to accept new vehicles for their dancing. From the earliest records, it appears that Western dance has always embraced an enormous variety of communal or ritual dances, of social dances enjoyed by many different levels of society, and of skilled theatrical dances that followed distinct but often overlapping lines of development. The article folk art covers in greater detail the unique nature, techniques, forms, and functions, and the historical developments of each of these kinds of Western dance. In addition, the article dance, covers the aesthetics and the varieties of dance, both Western and non-Western. Aspects of Eastern dance are detailed in the article East Asian arts. The West cannot always be clearly distinguished from the non-West, especially in such countries as Russia or other regions of the former Soviet Union, where some dances are Asian and others European in origin and character. This article focuses on the dance of Western peoples, noting where appropriate the influence of other cultures. Additional reading Curt Sachs, A World History of the Dance (1937, reprinted 1965; originally published in German, 1933), the most comprehensive, systematic, and factual history of dance in all its epochs and forms, with special emphasis on its earliest beginnings and close attention to dance accompaniment; W.F. Raff, Dictionary of the Dance (1965, reissued 1975), detailed descriptions of the particular dances, their background, and history; Anatole Chujoy and P.W. Manchester (eds.), The Dance Encyclopedia, rev. ed. (1967), a collection of articles on all forms of dancingparticularly detailed in its coverage of ballet, including entries on specific productions, artistic biographies, and histories of ballet in various countries; Horst Koegler, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ballet, 2nd ed. (1982), a comprehensive reference work; Lincoln Kirstein, Dance: A Short History of Classic Theatrical Dancing (1935, reprinted 1970), a very thorough book on the pre-balletic forms of dance as well as classic theatrical dance; Walter Sorell, The Dance Through the Ages (1967), a general, readable survey of the worldwide dance scene from prehistoric times through today, with superb pictures of ancient and modern dance; A.H. Franks, Social Dance: A Short History (1963), the first attempt at relating the origins and developments of the most important social dance forms to their social environment; Frances Rust, Dance in Society (1969), a study giving documentary evidence of the social dances and their relationships to the changing structures of society, with emphasis on the English scene and the teenage explosion in dance during the 1960s. Horst Koegler The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries Under kings Louis XIV and Louis XV, France led western Europe into the age of the Rococo in the arts. The Rococo began as a movement toward simplicity and naturalness, a reaction against the stilted mannerisms and preciousness to which the earlier Baroque art was considered to have degenerated. It was a great age of and for dancing, with the minuet the symbol of its emphasis on civilized movement. This formal dance, the perfect execution of which was almost a science in itself, reflected the Rococo idea of naturalness. The statement that the dance has now come to the highest point of its perfection by the composer Jean-Philippe Rameau (16831764) suggested how conscious the French were of the great strides dance had made. That this was particularly the case in France was confirmed by the English poet and essayist Soame Jenyns (170487) in his lines None will sure presume to rival France, / Whether she forms or executes the dance. None, however, excelled the estimation of his profession by the dancing master in Molire's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670): There is nothing so necessary to human beings as the dance . . . Without the dance, a man would not be able to do anything. . . . All the misfortunes of man, all the baleful reverses with which histories are filled, the blunders of politicians and the failures of great leaders, all of this is the result of not knowing how to dance. The maturing of ballet Dance was finally deemed ready for an academy of its own. In 1661, 13 dancing masters who had been members of a professional guild of medieval origin, together with some musicians, composers, and the makers of instruments, were granted a charter by Louis XIV for the Acadmie Royale de Danse. From antiquity through the Renaissance Before written records were left, a vast span of time elapsed about which scholars can only speculate. Pictorial records in cave paintings in Spain and France showing dancelike formations have led to the conjecture that religious rites and attempts to influence events through sympathetic magic were central motivations of prehistoric dance. Such speculations have been reinforced by observation of dances of primitive peoples in the contemporary world, though the connection between ancient and modern primitives is by no means accepted by many scholars. If the dances recorded in early written records represented a continuity from prehistoric dances, there may have been prehistoric work dances, war dances, and erotic couple and group dances as well. One couple dance surviving in the 20th century, the Bavarian-Austrian Schuhplattler, is considered by historians to be of Neolithic origin, from before 3000 BC. Dance in the ancient world In the civilizations of Egypt, Greece and its neighbouring islands, and Rome, written records supplement the many pictorial remains. Written records alone provide information about ancient Jewish dancing. There are still conjectures about the style, pattern, and purpose of ancient dances, but there is far more concrete evidence. The 20th century Two trends were evident during the first years of the 20th century, before World War I. As if aware of some impending catastrophe, the wealthy society of Europe and the Americas indulged itself to the full in quicker waltzes and faster galops. At the same time, it tried to revive the minuet, gavotte, and pavane, producing only pale and lifeless evocations. There had hardly ever been such a frantic search for new forms, such radical questioning of values previously taken for granted, such a craze among the youth of all nations for individual expression and a more dynamic way of life. All the arts were deeply influenced by the rapid accumulation of discoveries in the physical and social sciences and an increasing awareness of social problems. Overall, it was an incredibly lively time for the dance, which never before had generated so many new ideas or attracted so many people. The ballet was completely rejuvenated under the leadership of Russian impresario Sergey Diaghilev (18721929). It inspired some of the foremost composers and painters of the day, becoming the primary theatre platform for the most up-to-date work in the arts. Proponents of another reform movement, modern dance, took their cue from the American dancer Isadora Duncan to strike in another way at the artificialities that Romantic ballet had generated. It took vigorous roots in Germany, where its expressionistic forms earned it the name Ausdruckstanz (expressionistic dance). The ballroom dances were thoroughly revolutionized through infusions of new vitality from South American, Creole, and black sources. With the overwhelming popularity of Afro-American jazz, the entire spirit and style of social dancing altered radically, becoming vastly more free, relaxed, and intimate through the following decades. There was also a renewal of interest in the folk dances that had been the expressions of the common people in past centuries. This was fostered partly through special folk-dance societies, partly through various youth movements that saw that these dances might assist in shaping new community feelings. Theatrical dance of all kinds, from the highly stylized, centuries-old dances of the Orient to exhibitions of naked female flesh, reached new heights of popularity. Diaghilev and his achievements The artistic consequences of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes were enormous. Diaghilev's interest in dance began while he was a member of a small circle of intellectuals in St. Petersburg who fought to bring Russia's arts onto the wider European scene. The painters Alexandre Benois and Lon Bakst were his earliest collaborators.