FOLK ART

Folk art: general considerations Under the influences of 19th-century sentiments, the concept of folk was affected by a fondness for the picturesque, by generous impulses toward aesthetic democracy, by the so-called arts and crafts movement, by historicism and philosophical Idealism, by nationalism and regionalism, and by an occasionally aggressive, wildly mystical sort of ethnocentrism. Thus, folk art was defined, if only by the implications of usage, sometimes as almost anything that could be considered quaint; sometimes as all non-elite art, primitive and popular included; sometimes as whatever seemed vaguely homemade; sometimes as the art of the common people, but with the latter regarded as a ghostly entity existing outside of real class structures; and sometimes as a traditional, characteristic art that preserved a cultural heritage and somehow represented the collective soul of a nation or a province. There are some more or less acceptable elements in such definitions. What is missing is a flat enough acknowledgment that folk art is the recognizable product of a nonruling, relatively unaffluent social class and that references to it except in relation to the elite art of a ruling class are meaningless. Putting all these considerations together, one arrives at what can serve as a core description. Unmistakable folk art is the art of a class of peasants, herdsmen, seamen, artisans, and small tradesmen living as a rule away from urban centres in societies that, while literate and highly civilized, are not highly industrialized. Such societies were to be found in Europe, particularly eastern Europe, until well into the 20th century, and they will still exist, of course, on other continents. Where they no longer exist, the term folk may still be appropriate for the art of social or ethnic minorities that have preserved earlier traits by living apart, culturally and often physically. More doubtfully, the term may be extended to certain traditional artistic productionsespecially those associated with carnivals, national holidays, religious processions, and the likethat are the work of thoroughly unfolkish city people. Fundamental characteristics of folk art and the folk artist Although the folk kind of art is invariably produced, according to the only definition that makes serviceable sense, in a culture that also produces the elite kind for a ruling class, the usual elite classification of the arts into the fine, or independent, and the useful, or decorative or dependent, is pretty much ignored by folk visual artists, who are typically willing to devote their creative imaginations to the design or decoration of tools, toys, furniture, cottages, clothes, arms, banners, musical instruments, and so on. The portrait of a Spanish patron saint may appear in embroidery; narrative pictures belonging, according to the European academic classification, to the elevated history category are painted on Sicilian carts. Something of the same mixture of the so-called high and low is typical of folk literature, music, and dancing: tragedy takes ballad form and a noble war dance the form of a Highland fling. Visual arts of the folk tradition Major folk regions The major recognized folk regions in most cases have been prolific in such crafts as textiles, pottery, and carving and in the production of implements and utensils; they also often have localized costumes. This common art output forms a broad basis underlying the more distinctive arts peculiar to particular areas. The material is so voluminous that most attempts at general survey are admittedly samplings. General summaries are commonly organized by nation, a convenient expedient, because major collections are centred in great national museums and because folk art is often studied and promoted as part of the national heritage. However, the national summary divides some groups that are homogeneous, such as the Basque region in Spain and France; and it combines, under Italy, for example, such diverse arts as the Alpine and Sicilian. Any effort to group regions for comparative study will most logically be based on such factors as the traditional retained sources, the prevailing religion, the nature of the related sophisticated culture, and the environmental conditions that affect materials and activities. Western Mediterranean Viewed in terms of these four factors, the European folk arts of the Mediterranean area obviously have much in common. First, there was a direct transmission from ancient Near Eastern and Greek civilization, accentuated by Greek colonization in the West and followed by Roman domination. These sources, plus the local cults that occurred everywhere, may be traced even in recent art in the continuance of a rich pottery tradition from Greek times onward and in the preservation of many motifs. Second, the religion, chiefly Roman Catholic or Greek Orthodox, demanded extensive imagery. Third, in the sophisticated cultures throughout the historical period, art of all kinds was a major activity, developing high skills that penetrated to some extent even to the more isolated folk. Finally, contact was facilitated by active trade along an extensive coastline, and varied materials were available; yet the area industrialized very slowly, so that the folk arts could continue to thrive in some localities even to the present. Thus, it is not surprising that the arts of this region are outstanding in quantity and variety. The level of skill is apparent, sometimes in bold and facile styles, sometimes in meticulous craftsmanship. Many folk artists were capable of expert full-round sculpture, realistic painting, fine metalwork, and other difficult techniques. The motifs are varied and freely intermingled. Among the long-surviving regional arts are those of Epirus in Greece, where an important folk centre has been established at Metsovon; the islandsthe Aegean with its stone architecture, Sicily with its spectacular carved and painted carts, puppets, and pottery, and Sardinia, noted for gold ornaments, textiles, and costumes still in use; and Puglia, Calabria, and the Abruzzi region in Italy, the latter having fine lace, silver filigree (openwork), and weaving. Southern France is affiliated with this area, as is evidenced by the style of the fine ex-votos and Nativity figures of Provence. So is the Iberian Peninsula, though in that region there are also special factors. The Moorish influence was felt particularly in Andalusiaas in the use of ivory as a material and in the arabesque tracery (ornate, interlaced openwork) of the ironworkand the Atlantic coastline provided other connections. The Portuguese use of cork was distinctive. Galicia and the Basque region, each with a population of distinct linguistic background, developed in prolonged isolation, the results of which are clearly visible in their exceptional arts: the architecture presents unique features, and the Basques are unusual in their lack of pottery, though they developed remarkable dance costumes. The difficulty of communications preserved a strong folk character not only in Galicia and the Basque region but throughout the peninsula. The painted and glazed tiles (azulejos), the textiles (notable in Salamanca), and carved furniture are among the products notably Iberian in character. Traditional survivals were strong in the northeast, with much religious art, including prints, centred in Catalonia. Visual arts of the folk tradition In the broadest sense, folk art refers to the art of the people, as distinguished from the elite or professional product that constitutes the mainstream of art in highly developed societies. The term in this comprehensive context combines some quite disparate categories of art; therefore, as a workable field of art-historical study, folk art is generally treated separately from certain other kinds of peoples' arts, notably the primitive (defined as the work of prehistorical and preliterate peoples). Historically, the terms folk and popular have been used interchangeably in the art field, the former being specific in English and German (Volkskunst), the latter in the Romance languages (populaire, popolare); the term folk, however, has increasingly been adopted in the various languages, both Western and Oriental, to designate the category under discussion here. Currently, the term popular art is widely used to denote items commercially or mass produced to meet popular taste, a process distinguished from the manner of the folk artist, who typically creates by hand (or with limited mechanical facilities) within a prescribed tradition objects designed for use by himself or his own circumscribed group. The distinction between folk and popular art is not absolute, however: some widely collected folk art, such as the chalkwares (painted plaster ornamental figures) common in America and the popular prints turned out for wide distribution, may be seen as the genesis of popular art; and the products and motifs long established in folk art have provided a natural source for the popular field. Although the definition of folk art is not yet firm, it may be considered as the art created among groups that exist within the framework of a developed society but, for geographic or cultural reasons, are largely separated from the cosmopolitan artistic developments of their time and that produce distinctive styles and objects for local needs and tastes. The output of such art represents a unique complex of primitive impulses and traditional practices subjected both to sophisticated influences and to highly local developments; aside from aesthetic considerations, the study of folk art is particularly revealing in regard to the relationship between art and culture. As industry, commerce, and transportation begin to offer all people free access to the latest ideas, and products, a true folk art tends to disappear; the integrity and tradition that formed its inherent character decline, and the heritage of home-produced products is undervalued for the very qualities that made it distinctive. Subsequent revivals, extensively sponsored by organizations, craft groups, governments, or commercial enterprises, are no longer the same thing. The recognition of folk art as a special category came about during the late 19th century and was at first limited to the so-called peasant art of Europe, the art of the land. The new intellectual climate of the time, with a romantic value attached to the simple life and the folk soul and the increasing spread of democratic or nationalistic ideas, brought the art of the common people into focus. It was recognized that their simple tools, utensils, and crafts had aesthetic aspects. Prior to industrialization, such folk art was widespread throughout Europe, exhibiting almost everywhere local styles created by people who had no access to the products of the wealthy and who were engaged largely in agricultural, pastoral, or maritime pursuits. As sophistication advanced, localism began to break down along major routes, but the folk arts continued on the periphery, particularly in geographically isolated regions, where they had an opportunity not only to survive but also to elaborate. Having only limited contact with the outside world, the inhabitants preserved their traditions, art forms, and methods of workmanship over a long period and, at the same time, had to rely on their own invention to create new styles and products at need. These outstanding regional arts provide a well-defined core of material in the field of folk art. As the early colonists emigrated to remote parts of the world, they, too, were isolated from the cultural developments of the homeland and forced to rely on their own skills for most of their products. The arts they took with them were transformed, and new arts emerged under the stimulus of a different environment and through contact with native cultures; the notable folk arts of the Americas were one result. In time, it was recognized that the great Oriental civilizations, like those of Europe, also had two distinct forms of artthe elitist and the folk. As Oriental folk-art scholarship developed, the subject gained international footing. While most scholars agree that a folk type of art has occurred at some time in many parts of the world (and may yet appear in newly developing countries), there are various areas in which such art has so far been ignored or has not been studied as a separate category. For instance, with the notable exception of Roman folk art, the folk distinction is not usually applied to the art of ancient civilizations nor to Islamic or Western medieval art. The summary provided here is, therefore, necessarily concentrated on the more studied areas: European folk art of the 17th19th century, colonial and postcolonial folk arts, and the folk art of certain major Eastern countries. In addition to the major folk regions, this article will deal with the categories, styles, content, and motifs of folk art. Patterns of development The extensive studies of European and American folk art over the past century have revealed certain patterns of folk-art development. Though these patterns are subject to revision as the field expands or is refined, they provide a basis on which cultural variations and less widespread or random occurrences may be considered.