JORDAN, A.C.

born Oct. 30, 1906, Mbokothwana Mission, Cape Colony [now in South Africa] died Oct. 20, 1968, Madison, Wis., U.S. in full Archibald Campbell Jordan Xhosa novelist and educator who belonged to the second generation of South African black writers (of which Es'kia Mphahlele and Peter Abrahams are the best known). Jordan served as lecturer in Bantu languages and African studies at the University of Cape Town until 1961, when he immigrated to the United States. He taught at the University of California, Los Angeles (1962), and at the University of Wisconsin (196368). Jordan wrote a series of articles entitled Towards an African Literature, which originally appeared in the periodical Africa South and were later published in book form. They discuss such topics as traditional praise poems, riddles and proverbs, the history of Xhosa literature, and various important individual Bantu writers. His novel Ingqumbo yeminyanya (1940; The Wrath of the Ancestors) goes much beyond earlier Xhosa novels in its attempt to reveal the workings of a modern black African mind in its fight against conservative tribal forces. In developing his theme of the conflict between traditional and Western ways, Jordan denies any easy solution. Before his death, Jordan had completed two more novels and a collection of short stories; the stories were published in 1975 under the title Kwezo mpindo zeTsitsa (Along the Bends of the Tsitsa). Additional reading General works Overviews of all aspects of the country include Raphael Patai, The Kingdom of Jordan (1958, reprinted 1984); Helen Chapin Metz (ed.), Jordan: A Country Study, 4th ed. (1991); and Peter Gubser, Jordan: Crossroads of Middle Eastern Events (1983). Further resources may be found in Ian J. Seccombe (compiler), Jordan (1984), an annotated bibliography; and the bibliography in Peter Gubser, Historical Dictionary of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1991). Geography Colbert C. Held and Mildred McDonald Held, Middle East Patterns: Places, Peoples, and Politics, 2nd ed. (1994), places Jordan in a larger context. Guy Mountfort, Portrait of a Desert (1965, reprinted 1969), gives an illustrated description of life in the desert of Jordan; while Rami G. Khouri, The Jordan Valley: Life and Society Below Sea Level (1981, reissued 1988), addresses agriculture and development on both sides of the river. Christine Osborne, An Insight and Guide to Jordan (1981), offers an overview of the landscape, society, and culture. Gerald Sparrow, Modern Jordan (1961), recounts the author's travels. George L. Harris, Jordan: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (1958), is a dated but still useful general reference book. A.H. Hourani, Minorities in the Arab World (1947, reprinted 1982), is a scholarly account of the various minority groups and their backgrounds. Studies in social anthropology include Richard T. Antoun, Arab Village: A Social Structural Study of a Transjordanian Peasant Community (1972, reissued 1977); Peter Gubser, Politics and Change in Al-Karak, Jordan: A Study of a Small Arab Town and Its District (1973, reissued 1985); and Paul A. Jureidini and R.D. McLaurin, Jordan: The Impact of Social Change on the Role of the Tribes (1984). Shelagh Weir, The Bedouin, new ed. (1990), provides an illustrated study of the arts and crafts of the Bedouin of Jordan. Norman N. Lewis, Nomads and Settlers in Syria and Jordan, 18001980 (1987), traces the shift from a grazing economy to a sedentary agricultural society. Economic and political conditions are addressed in Michael P. Mazur, Economic Growth and Development in Jordan (1979); Bichara Khader and Adnan Badran (eds.), The Economic Development of Jordan (1987), a collection of essays; Naseer H. Aruri, Jordan: A Study in Political Development (19211965) (1972); and Rodney Wilson (ed.), Politics and the Economy in Jordan (1991). History The history of Jordan within the region is studied in William L. Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, 2nd ed. (1999); and Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr., A Concise History of the Middle East, 6th ed. (1999). The most accessible general study of Jordanian history is Kamal Salibi, The Modern History of Jordan (1993, reissued 1998). Adnan Hadidi (ed.), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan, 3 vol. (198287), contains detailed analyses of ancient and medieval history. Studies of Jordan at various points in its history include B.A. Toukan, A Short History of Trans-Jordan (1945); and Uriel Dann, Studies in the History of Transjordan, 19201949: The Making of a State (1984). Mary C. Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan (1987, reissued 1990); and Avi Shlaim, Collusion Across the Jordan: King Abdullah, the Zionist Movement, and the Partition of Palestine (1988), also available in rev. abridged ed., The Politics of Partition (1998), examine the role of King Abdullah at critical points in Jordan's history. Amnon Cohen, Political Parties in the West Bank Under the Jordanian Regime, 19491967, (1982, originally published in Hebrew, 1980); Shaul Mishal, West Bank/East Bank: The Palestinians in Jordan, 19491967 (1978); and Clinton Bailey, Jordan's Palestinian Challenge, 19481983: A Political History (1984), discuss Jordan and the Palestinians. P.J. Vatikiotis, Politics and the Military in Jordan: A Study of the Arab Legion, 19211957 (1967), outlines the historical influence of the military on Jordanian politics. Valerie Yorke, Domestic Politics and Regional Security: Jordan, Syria, and Israel (1988), examines Jordan's domestic political dynamics. Madiha Rashid Al Madfai, Jordan, the United States, and the Middle East Peace Process, 19741991 (1993), explores Jordan's diplomatic role. Kamel S. Abu Jaber Ian J. Bickerton Administration and social conditions Government The 1952 constitution is the most recent of a series of legislative instruments that, both before and after independence, have increased executive responsibility. The constitution declares Jordan to be a constitutional hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. Islam is the official religion, and Jordan is declared to be part of the Arab ummah (nation). The king remains the country's ultimate authority and wields power over the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Jordan's central government is headed by a prime minister appointed by the king, who also chooses the cabinet. According to the constitution, the appointments of both prime minister and cabinet are subject to parliamentary approval. The cabinet coordinates the work of the different departments and establishes general policy. Under the constitution the membership of the upper house (the Senate) of the bicameral legislature, composed of 40 al-a'yan (notables), is appointed by the king for four years. Elections for 80 nuwwab (deputies) of the lower house (the House of Representatives) are to be held at least every four years, although elections have frequently been suspended. The ninth parliament, elected in 1965, was prorogued several times before being replaced in 1978 by the National Consultative Council, an appointed body with reduced power that debates government programs and activities. The parliament was reconvened, however, in a special session called in January 1984. Since then the parliament has been periodically suspended: from 1988, when Jordan severed its ties with the West Bank, until 1989 and from August until November 1993, when the country held its first multiparty elections since 1956. Jordanians 18 years of age and older may vote provided they meet the legal requirements and are not members of the royal family. Political parties were banned before the elections in 1963, however. Between 1971 and 1976 (when it was abolished), the Arab National Union (originally called the Jordanian National Union) was the only political organization allowed. A national charter approved by King Hussein in 1992 legalized political parties as long as they acknowledged the legitimacy of the monarchy. Jordan is divided into administrative muhafazat (governorates), which in turn are divided into districts and subdistricts, each of which is headed by an official appointed by the minister of the interior. Cities and towns each have mayors and elected councils. Justice and security The judiciary is constitutionally independent, though judges are appointed and dismissed by royal iradah (decree) following a decision made by the Justices Council. There are three categories of courts. The first category consists of regular courts, including those of magistrates, courts of first instance, and courts of appeals and cassation in Amman, which hear appeals passed on from lower courts. The constitution also provides for the Diwan Khass (Special Council), which interprets the laws and passes on their constitutionality. The second category consists of Shari'ah (Islamic) courts and other religious courts for non-Muslims; these exercise jurisdiction over matters of personal status. The third category consists of special courts, such as land, government, property, municipal, tax, and customs courts. The Jordanian armed forces include an army and an air force, which is equipped with modern jet aircraft, developed from the Arab Legion. There is also a small navy that acts as a coast guard. The king is commander in chief of the armed forces.