NICEPHORUS I

born , Seleucia died July 26, 811, Bulgaria Byzantine emperor from 802 who late in his reign alienated his subjects with his extremely heavy taxation and frequent confiscations of property. Nicephorus became a high financial official under the empress Irene, and, when a revolution deposed Irene in 802, he was proclaimed emperor. In the following year he crushed a rebellion by Bardanes Turcus, a rival candidate for the throne, and in 808 he put down a similar revolt led by Arsaber. When Nicephorus withheld the tribute that Irene had agreed to pay the Baghdad caliph Ha run ar-Rashid, war followed, and Arab forces defeated the Byzantine emperor at Crasus in Phrygia (805). In 806 Harun ar-Rashid invaded Asia Minor with more than 135,000 men and captured Heraclea, Tyana, and other places. Nicephorus was forced to agree to pay a yearly tribute of 30,000 gold pieces. Although Nicephorus' religious policy was Orthodox rather than Iconoclast (e.g., he permitted the veneration of images), he exercised strong control over the church, even going so far as to sponsor the convocation of a synod (809) that declared the emperor exempt from ecclesiastical laws. During Nicephorus' reign Venice, Istria, and the Dalmatian coast were in dispute between Byzantium and the empire of Charlemagne until 810. Then a tentative agreement was reached, under which the disputed areas were to be returned to Byzantium in exchange for Byzantine recognition of Charlemagne's title of emperor. The details were worked out two years later during the reign of Nicephorus' successor, his son-in-law Michael I. In 807809, Nicephorus I conducted campaigns against the Bulgars, who were harassing Byzantium's northern frontiers. In 811 he invaded Bulgaria, rejecting the Bulgar khan Krum's repeated offers for peace. The Bulgars, however, managed to trap the Byzantines in a mountain defile, where they killed Nicephorus together with most of his army. Krum had Nicephorus' skull lined with silver and used it as a drinking cup.