TOLL

sum levied on users of certain roads, highways, canals, bridges, tunnels, ferries, and other such conveniences, primarily to pay the construction and maintenance costs for those structures. Tolls were known in the ancient world and were especially popular in the European Middle Ages, when they were widely used to support bridge construction. The chapel on the Pont d'Avignon served also as a toll station. The fee for a horse and rider was two deniers (pennies); a wagon, four deniers; a donkey, cow, or sheep, one-half denier. On Old London Bridge, tolls were charged both for traffic over and navigation under the bridge. A valued medieval privilege, given for special services or in return for a payment, was freedom from tolls. Canal building, which became extensive in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries, was financed chiefly by tolls; and many major roads, such as the British turnpikes, were built by private companies with the right to collect tolls. The National Road, built in the United States beginning in 1806, was financed out of the sale of public land; but maintenance problems soon caused Congress to authorize tolls. Toll roads passed out of fashion in the later 19th century, but the idea was revived with the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the 1930s; and after World War II several U.S. states built toll expressways. The Italian autostrade, begun in the 1920s, were toll financed. Tolls as a means of paying for long-span bridges and major tunnels have been much more prevalent in the United States than elsewhere. One objection to tolls has been that road users are in effect subject to double taxation: gasoline taxes and road tolls. Canal tolls are still charged in many parts of the world but with wide variations. Such major international waterways as the Suez and Panama canals charge tolls, but many other international waterways do not. French canals charge no tolls; a few German canals do; and Belgian canals charge enough to cover maintenance only.