SLAVE REBELLIONS

in American history, periodic acts of violent resistance by black slaves during more than two centuries of chattel slavery, signifying continual deep-rooted discontent with the condition of bondage and resulting in ever more stringent mechanisms for social control and repression in slaveholding areas. The myth of the contented slave was essential to the preservation of the South's peculiar institution, and the historical record of rebellions was frequently clouded by exaggeration, censorship, and distortion. Estimates of the total number of slave revolts vary according to the definition of insurrection. For the two centuries preceding the American Civil War (186165), one historian found documentary evidence of more than 250 uprisings or attempted uprisings involving 10 or more slaves whose aim was personal freedom. Few of these, however, were systematically planned, and most were merely spontaneous and quite short-lived disturbances by small groups of slaves. Such rebellions were usually attempted by male bondsmen and were often betrayed by house servants who identified more closely with their masters. Three rebellions or attempted rebellions by slaves do deserve special notice, however. The first large-scale conspiracy was conceived by Gabriel (q.v.) in the summer of 1800. On August 30 more than 1,000 armed slaves massed for action near Richmond, Va., but were thwarted by a violent rainstorm. The slaves were forced to disband, and 35 were hanged, including Gabriel. The only free person to lead a rebellion was Denmark Vesey (q.v.), an urban artisan of Charleston, S.C. Vesey's rebellion (1822) was to have involved, according to some accounts, as many as 9,000 slaves from the surrounding area, but the conspiracy was betrayed in June before the plan could be effected. As a result 139 blacks were arrested, of whom 37 (including Vesey) were hanged and 32 exiled before the end of the summer. The third notable slave rebellion was led by Nat Turner (q.v.), at Southampton county, Va., in the summer of 1831. On the evening of August 21 a band of 6 slaves started their crusade against bondage, killing a total of 57 whites and attracting up to 70 fellow slaves to the conspiracy during the next few days. On the 24th, hundreds of militia and volunteers stopped the rebels near Jerusalem, the county seat, killing at least 40 and probably nearer 100. Turner was hanged on November 11. As usual, a new wave of unrest spread through the South, accompanied by corresponding fear among slaveholders and passage of more repressive legislation directed against both slaves and free blacks. These measures were aimed particularly at restricting the education of blacks, their freedom of movement and assembly, and the circulation of inflammatory printed material. Although the slave rebellion known as the Amistad mutiny occurred on a slave ship off the coast of Cuba in the summer of 1839, the 53 African captives who revolted were captured and tried in the United States after their ship entered U.S. waters. Their legal victory in 1840 in a federal court in Connecticut, a state in which slavery was legal, was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the following year. With help from Abolitionist and missionary groups, the Africans returned home to Sierra Leone in 1842. In the decades preceding the American Civil War, increasing numbers of discontented slaves escaped to the North or to Canada via the Underground Railroad (q.v.). Publicity in the North concerning black rebellions and the influx of fugitive slaves helped to arouse wider sympathy for the plight of the slave and support for the Abolition Movement (see abolitionism).