STAGE MACHINERY

devices designed for the production of theatrical effects, such as rapid scene changes, lighting, sound effects, and illusions of the supernatural or magical. Theatrical machinery has been in use since at least the 5th century BC, when the Greeks developed deus ex machina (q.v.), by which an actor could be lowered to the stage. During the Hellenistic period, the Greeks also used movable scenery, mounted on wheels or on revolving prisms called periaktoi (see periaktos). The Romans elaborated on these devices, adding traps (see trap) and underground pumping systems so that their outdoor theatres could be flooded for aquatic shows. The mystery plays of the Middle Ages also used stage machinery, including a trapdoor, or a hellmouth, for the emergence of devils and flying machines for angels. But the art did not reach its zenith until the Italian Renaissance. In the late 14th century Italian artists, architects, and engineers began to design elaborate machinery for spectacles produced in the churches on holy days. One such device was the Paradiso, a system of ropes and pulleys by which a whole chorus of angels was made to descend, singing, from a heaven of cotton clouds. Greek and Roman stage machinery was rediscovered, and Bastiano de Sangallo developed new variations on the ancient method of using periaktoi for quick changes of scenery. Italian stage machinery eventually became so elaborate that it was necessary to introduce a highly decorated proscenium arch to hide it. The early Italian operas were famous for their special effects: ocean waves were simulated on stage by painted spiral columns, laid across the stage in diminishing perspective and slowly turned; mock sea monsters and other fabulous creatures were operated by teams of men inside them; deities mounted on clouds flew on complicated systems of wires; and portions of the theatres could even be flooded for water spectacles. In the 17th century the English masque designer Inigo Jones and Giacomo Torelli, one of the greatest Italian stage engineers, invented many important pieces of stage equipment, some of which are in use today. The most famous was a system for moving the wings at either side of the stage, thus making it possible to change scenery almost instantaneously. The tradition of mechanical spectacle on stage was carried on into the 18th century by court theatres and by the Jesuit college theatre, but there was little new development. When lighting methods improved enormously in the 19th century, with such inventions as the limelight (q.v.), it became possible to spotlight the actors and to create special effects such as sunlight and moonlight. Magical illusions were also developed to a high art on the 19th-century English stage, which produced great refinements in the use of trapdoors and mirror devices for the simulation of ghosts and apparitions. In general, the picture frame stage of the later 19th century allowed the refinement of extraordinarily vivid spectacles, realistic and otherwise, by the use of treadmills, moving panoramas, and other stage machinery. In the early 20th century, particularly in Germany, much use was made of revolving turntables and hydraulically elevated stages, on which complex scenes could be preset and then brought into view when needed, but such machinery was generally found to be too elaborate and expensive. The trend toward increasing intimacy between the actor and his audience led in the second half of the 20th century to the return of open stages and theatre-in-the-round, which require little scenery or stage machinery of any kind.