STAGE DESIGN

the aesthetic composition of a dramatic production as created by such aspects of stagecraft as lighting, set, costume, sound, and stage architecture and machinery. the aesthetic composition of a dramatic production as created by such aspects of stagecraft as lighting, set, costume, sound, and stage architecture and machinery. The evolution of staging in European culture can be seen as variations on the principles established by the classical Greek and Roman theatres. In the Hellenistic period, from the 4th century BC, the Greek theatre was already using within its permanent semicircular structure a number of movable scenic elements. These are thought to have included painted screens, wheeled platforms, and cranes for flying actors. Most of the innovations in indoor staging that occurred during the Renaissance came from the Italian theatre. On its recreated classical stage, it enhanced the scenic background by applying the perspective techniques recently discovered in painting. Initially, two-dimensional street scenes were depicted, but with the development of the proscenium arch, more complex perspective architectural settings emerged. These included painted backdrops and flat wings at the sides of the stage. The visual effects became increasingly elaborate, often with numerous changes of scenery taking place before the audience's eyes. Outside this tradition, the English Elizabethan theatre, with its deep thrust stage, featured a permanent architectural structure at the rear that enabled the action to take place vertically on different levels as well as horizontally in different directions. Although the actors used properties extensively, locations were suggested through the poetry rather than through painted scenery. This allowed a swiftness of action not possible in theatres where scene changes were cumbersome. During the Baroque period, from the 17th century, the Italian influence spread through Europe. The demand for scenic spectacle meant a deepening of the stage to accommodate the newly developed machinery and the elaborate effects that came to dominate both opera and ballet. Italian staging was introduced to England in 1605 by the architect Inigo Jones, who designed many court masques adapting ideas that he had seen in Italy. With the Romantic movement and its sentimentalization of nature, the landscape became a popular alternative to the architectural setting, and the scene painter became increasingly influential. The most common type of staging during the 19th century was a series of flats or cut-outs forming natural arches across the stage, through which could be seen a panorama at the back. Changes in theatre architecture and improvements in stage machinery led to a new naturalism at the end of the 19th century, partly initiated by the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. In his company, which toured throughout Europe, scenic details were determined by archaeological research rather than artistic fancy. In England this trend was reflected in lavish but historically accurate productions of the classics and in realistic box settings for modern plays. David Belasco, the American producer, carried realism to extremes by using live animals on stage. As the perspective painters had influenced the Renaissance theatre, so the Cubists and Expressionists made their mark on the theatre of the early 20th century in a reaction against Realism. The emphasis changed from illusion to style. Such designers as Adolphe Appia and Gordon Craig introduced bolder, more symbolic shapes to interpret the mood of the play. This simplification in staging meant that the actor, who had formerly been overwhelmed by the scenery, now became preeminent. A consequence in England was that Shakespeare's plays could, for the first time in centuries, be played as a continuous flow of action. In the 1920s the French director Jacques Copeau rediscovered the advantages of the bare platform stage. By the 1960s, Jerzy Grotowski introduced in Poland poor theatre, a rejection of elaborate costumes, make-up, and scenery, with a more fluid actoraudience arrangement determined by the requirements of each play. Often the actors and audience occupied almost the same space. The other major influence on 20th-century staging was the alienation effect introduced by the German dramatist Bertolt Brecht. He exposed the equipment of the stage to discourage the spectator from being swept away by the spell of theatre and, thus, losing objectivity. One of the greatest influences on staging and scenic design has been the advancements made in stage lighting. Until the 16th century, theatre was mainly an outdoor activity. When the indoor theatres of the Renaissance appeared, illumination was provided by torches, tallow candles, and open-wick lamps. Reflectors to intensify the light were used in the 17th century, and, toward the end of the 18th century, glass-chimney oil lamps appeared, although the level of light was still very low. In order to make their features more distinctive, the actors resorted to painting their faces with cosmetics. Gas lighting, introduced to the London stage in 1803, was much brighter, and its intensity could be easily adjusted. Following Thomas Edison's invention in 1879, electric lighting was first used on stage by the Paris Opra in 1880, and the other theatres were quick to follow. It was the development of spotlights in the early part of the 20th century that made stage lighting a refined art. Though the visibility of the actor is regarded as the prime function of lighting, modern techniques have given designers complete lighting control of the stage space, allowing them to paint with light, using it where and as they need it, rather than having to drench the stage with as bright a wash as possible. Similarly, make-up techniques have become more subtle, and, in smaller theatres, actors often use no make-up at all. Today, the lighting designer has at his disposal a wide range of powerful spots and floodlights, as well as projectors capable of simulating water, cloud and fire effects, and other moving images. Lighting control boards also have reached a high efficiency through computerization, making them easy to operate however complex the lighting plot and however large the number of cues. With its almost limitless possibilities, modern stage lighting has become a vital means of unifying all the visual elements in a stage production. Because of the immense size of the auditorium, costumes in the Greek and Roman theatre were usually stereotyped, so that the characters, who also wore masks, could be instantly identified. In the Renaissance theatre, classical modes of dress, though exaggerated and embellished, were the main inspiration for theatrical costume. These were taken to greater levels of extravagance and fantasy in the Baroque operas and ballets of the late 17th century, though by the end of the 18th century there was a trend toward historical authenticity. The most imaginative innovations in costume design during the 20th century have been in the field of dance, which has frequently attracted avant-garde artists. Today, the designer has a choice between authentic and interpretative costume. A classical play may therefore be dressed in an indeterminate period to suggest the universality of the play. Additional reading Of special interest is Walther Unruh, Theatertechnik: Fachkunde und Vorschriftensammlung (1969), a study of theatre machinery by a master of stage engineering. Aspects of stage setting and scenery are explored in Lee Simonson, The Stage Is Set (1964); Lon Moussinac, The New Movement in the Theatre (1931, reissued 1967); Mordecai Gorelik, New Theatres for Old (1940, reprinted 1975); Walter Ren Fuerst and Samuel J. Hume, Twentieth-Century Stage Decoration, 2 vol. (1929, reissued 1967); Ren Hainaux (ed.), Stage Design Throughout the World Since 1935 (1956), Stage Design Throughout the World Since 1950 (1964), Stage Design Throughout the World Since 1960 (1973), and Stage Design Throughout the World, 197075 (1976), chiefly illustrative material collected by the International Theatre Institute; Denis Bablet, Edward Gordon Craig (1966, reissued in 1981 as The Theatre of Edward Gordon Craig; originally published in French, 1962); Jarka Burian, The Scenography of Josef Svoboda (1971, reprinted 1977); and Andrew McCallum, Fun with Stagecraft (1981).Light, colour, costume, and makeup and the interrelation of these elements on the stage are the subjects of the following works: Theodore Fuchs, Stage Lighting (1929, reissued 1963); Willard F. Bellman, Lighting the Stage: Art and Practice, 2nd ed. (1974); Richard Pilbrow, Stage Lighting, rev. ed. (1979); Gsta M. Bergman, Lighting in the Theatre (1977); Theodore Komisarjevsky, The Costume of the Theatre (1932, reprinted 1968); James Laver, Drama, Its Costume & Dcor (1951); Jack Cassin-Scott, Costumes and Settings for Staging Historical Plays, 4 vol. (1979; also published as Costumes and Settings for Historical Plays); John T. Williams, Costumes and Settings for Shakespeare's Plays (1982); Millia Davenport, The Book of Costume, 2 vol. (1948, reissued in 1 vol., 1979); Hilaire Hiler and Meyer Hiler, Bibliography of Costume: A Dictionary Catalog of About Eight Thousand Books and Periodicals (1939, reissued 1967); Isabel Monro and Dorothy E. Cook (eds.), Costume Index: A Subject Index to Plates and to Illustrated Text (1937), with a Costume Index Supplement, ed. by Isabel Monro and Kate M. Monro (1957); Iwao Kongow, No-isho: Japanese No-Play Costume, 2 vol. (1934); Ruth M. Shaver, Kabuki Costume (1966); Max Tilke, Oriental Costumes: Their Designs and Colors (1923; originally published in German, 1923); and Richard Corson, Stage Makeup, 7th ed. (1986), and Fashions in Hair: The First Five Thousand Years, rev. ed. (1980). Costume design Theatrical costumes are neither historical nor contemporary; they elaborate a style and convention of their own. Their success in any production depends in large measure on the designer's ability to understand and interpret the director's production concept. The spirit of the production and the director's aims may call for special emphasis on certain characteristics in clothing. Designs may be copies of period costumes or may attempt only to evoke a period. Museums and other repositories of the decorative and literary arts are rich sources of inspiration. Since the subject of theatrical costume design is so closely related to the art and history of dress, the reader's attention is called to the article dress, in which these topics are treated comprehensively. Historical development Classical theatrical costume Theatrical costumes were an innovation of Thespis, in Greece in the 6th century BC, and theatrical costumes are still called the robes of Thespis. Athenians spent lavishly on the production and costumes at the annual drama contests since each poet was given a wealthy citizen, the choregos, who, encouraged by the honour of a separate state impresario's prize, tended to make the event a demonstration of his spending power. The earliest tragedies were played in long, rich robes similar to those worn by the priests of Dionysus. To increase the height and importance of the principal actors, Aeschylus introduced the buskin, Asiatic elevated boots, called kothornoi in Greek, which became one of the chief characteristics of the Greek tragic actor. The soles increased in thickness according to the status of the wearer. To balance his height, padding often was used to add bulk to the actor's stature. Members of the chorus did not wear these boots so that they could dance with ease. The performers were clad in stage tunics, chitons, which were long-sleeved, high-girdled, and elaborately embellished, as were their long and short cloaks (himations and chlamyses). Aeschylus was renowned for the brilliant mounting and costuming of his tragedies, and by the time of his death, in 456 BC, a traditional tragic costume had evolved. Each costume was in a symbolic colour. The most important feature of the Greek costume was the mask, which indicated the character's age, sex, station, and customary mood. The masks were made of linen, cork, or wood and were skillfully carved and painted. Their funnel-shaped mouths are thought to have acted as megaphones to amplify the voice. In his Onomasticon, Julius Pollux, a Greek writer of the 2nd century AD, gives a detailed account of the special features accorded to each character. He enumerates 30 masks used in tragedy and lists the characteristics of the comedy series, which are particularly exaggerated and grotesque. The onkos, a high ornate headdress, crowned some masks, adding height and thus importance to the wearer. Scene from a burlesque showing Heracles tempting Apollo. Actors wear short tunics and tubular pants In the Doric mimes and Old Comedies, the upper class characters wore stage chitons and cloaks, and the lower classes and slaves wore short tunics, revealing pendant phalli. These character tunics were often worn under light-fitting vests and over grotesque padding of torso and buttocks (see photograph). Mimic horses, satyrs, bird figures, and other animal imitations were much in evidence. Aristophanes, in The Wasps, The Birds, and The Frogs, calls for all manner of such figures and clothing. Actors performed in skins and wore horses' heads, birdlike visors, and mock wings. In the later comedy of Menander, the phallus and mythological elements were abandoned, for his intention was to represent urban life, and the costumes worn reflected this intention. Masks became more stereotyped; they were used over and over again for character parts in different plays. Colour symbolism still held great importance. Roman drama had its indigenous roots in the Etruscan mimetic dances. Mime without masks, together with acrobatic dancing, became a favourite part of the day's entertainment at the games or circuses. Plays, too, were among the diversions; to satisfy the crowd's taste for realism and sensation, legions of spectacularly dressed soldiers were introduced to the tragedies. Costumes for tragedy were modeled on Greek styles; by Roman times the name cothurnus (from kothornoi) had come to designate the tragic genre itself. Kings and queens in tragedies wore appropriate padding, tall wigs, and sleeved syrma (the robe corresponding to the chiton). Bands of bright hues decorated the costumes of happy characters, and gray, green, or blue those of fugitives. Gods and goddesses were distinguished by their insignia; seers were clad in woolen garments over a shorter, less full syrma; and huntsmen rolled a purple shawl around their left arms. Slaves wore leather jackets and light breeches or braids indicating their barbarian origin. In the fabula palliata, Roman comedies on Greek subjects and based on Greek models, actors wore chitons and the pallium, a cloak resembling the himation. In tales of Rome based on Greek models, and fabula togata, actors were costumed in the mantle and toga. The heroes of plays dealing with Roman history, called fabulae praetextatae, wore togas with the praetexta decoration indicating magistrates. The fabula Atellana, rustic plays originating in southern Italy, were given both public and private performances. In the homes of patricians, young noblemen often took the parts of the standard charactersthe bragging, greedy Maccus, the stupid Bucco, the foolish miser Pappuswearing masks to disguise their identities. Their masks, known as personae, were decorated with hair; they were not worn by professional actors until introduced by the actor Quintus Roscius in the 1st century BC. Before their introduction, wigs (galeri) were worn. Also, Italian comedians wore a flat slipper called the succus. The garment peculiar to mime productions was a gay coloured patchwork jacket called centunculus, and this name became applied to mime actors in general. At Corneto, a tomb painting depicts Stupidus (the fool of the mimes) wearing another coat covered with coloured patches, a tall pointed cap decorated with a tassel, and a square, short cloak known as a ricinium. Because of this garment, the mime players were also known as riciniati. The producers of the mimes also provided their performers with gigantic phalli. The mimes, it was said, pulled down the gods and heroes from on high and provided them with phalli. As drama in Rome declined, the mimes introduced plays on the theme of the oldish cuckold and the frail and plotting lover, which became most bawdy and obscene during the 6th century AD, as did the pantomimes featuring lavish licentious entertainments. Such entertainment continued to be presented until the fall of the Roman Empire later in that century. Through the Early Middle Ages, jugglers, fools, and small mime troupes roamed through Europe, but a record of organized drama has yet to be found.