DEATH, DANCE OF

also called danse macabre medieval allegorical concept of the all-conquering and equalizing power of death, expressed in the drama, poetry, music, and visual arts of western Europe mainly in the late Middle Ages. Strictly speaking, it is a literary or pictorial representation of a procession or dance of both living and dead figures, the living arranged in order of their rank, from pope and emperor to child, clerk, and hermit, and the dead leading them to the grave. The dance of death had its origins in late 13th- or early 14th-century poems that combined the essential ideas of the inevitability and the impartiality of death. The concept probably gained momentum in the late Middle Ages as a result of the obsession with death inspired by an epidemic of the Black Death in the mid-14th century and the devastation of the Hundred Years' War (13371453) between France and England. The mime dance and the morality play undoubtedly contributed to the development of its form. The earliest known example of the fully developed dance of death concept is a series of paintings (142425) formerly in the Cimetire des Innocents in Paris. In this series the whole hierarchy of church and state formed a stately dance, the living alternating with skeletons or corpses escorting them to their destination. The work was a stern reminder of the imminence of death and a summons to repentance. The Paris danse macabre was destroyed in 1699, but a reproduction or free rendering can be seen in the woodcuts of the Paris printer Guy Marchant (1485), and the explanatory verses have been preserved. All other picture cycles on the theme were derived directly or indirectly from that of the Innocents. The dance of death frequently appears in friezes decorating the cloisters of monasteries (the open courtyards of which usually contained cemeteries) and the naves of churches. There are also numerous German woodcut versions. In 152326 the German artist Hans Holbein the Younger made a series of drawings of the subject, perhaps the culminating point in the pictorial evolution of the dance of death, which were engraved by the German Hans Ltzelburger and published at Lyon in 1538. Holbein's procession is divided into separate scenes depicting the skeletal figure of death surprising his victims in the midst of their daily life. Apart from a few isolated mural paintings in northern Italy, the theme did not become popular south of the Alps. The proliferation of literary versions of the dance of death included a Spanish masterpiece, the poem La danza general de la muerte, which was inspired by the verses at the Innocents and by several German poems. Late Renaissance literature contains references to the theme in varied contexts. In music the dance of death was performed frequently in compositions associated with death. Mimed representations were performed in Germany, France, Flanders, and the Netherlands, and the music of one German Totentanz (dance of death) has survived from the early 16th century. The concept of the dance of death lost its awesome hold in the Renaissance, but the universality of the theme inspired its revival in French 19th-century Romantic literature and in 19th- and 20th-century music. In 1956 it was effectively used as the visual climax of Ingmar Bergman's motion picture The Seventh Seal.