INTERNATIONAL PAYMENT AND EXCHANGE

international exchange also called foreign exchange respectively, any payment made by one country to another and the market in which national currencies are bought and sold by those who require them for such payments. Countries may make payments in settlement of a trade debt, for capital investment, or for other purposes. Other transactions may involve exporters, importers, multinational corporations, or persons wishing to send money to friends or relatives. The reasons for such payments, the methods of making them, and accounting for them are matters of importance for economists and national governments. Economic life does not stop at national boundaries but flows back and forth across them. The money of one country, however, cannot as a rule be used in another country; the flow of payments must be interrupted at national boundaries by exchange transactions in which one national money is converted into another. These transactions serve to cover payments so long as there is a balance between them: local money can be exchanged against foreign money only insofar as there is a counterbalancing offer of foreign money in exchange. In China and other countries with centralized economic planning, there are no legal private markets for foreign exchange; in those countries the state has a monopoly of the business of foreign trade, which is generally conducted through formal agreements on a country-by-country basis. While the currencies of the Communist countries have official par values, these bear no particular relationship to their purchasing power or to the prices at which goods are exchanged. The international economic relationships of those countries therefore fall outside the scope of this discussion. Additional reading Benjamin J. Cohen, Organizing the World's Money: The Political Economy of International Monetary Relations (1977); Richard N. Cooper et al. (eds.), The International Monetary System Under Flexible Exchange Rates: Global, Regional, and National (1982); Richard N. Cooper, Macroeconomic Policy Adjustment in Interdependent Economies (1969); Paul Einzig and Brian Scott Quinn, The Euro-Dollar System: Practice and Theory of International Interest Rates, 6th ed. (1977); J. Marcus Fleming, Guidelines for Balance-of-Payments Adjustment Under the Par-Value System (1968); Anne O. Krueger, Exchange-Rate Determination (1983); Gerald M. Meier, Problems of Trade Policy (1973), Problems of a World Monetary Order, 2nd ed. (1982), and Problems of Cooperation for Development (1974); Robert A. Mundell, International Economics (1968); Robert Solomon, The International Monetary System, 19451981, new ed. (1982); and Robert Triffin, Gold and the Dollar Crisis: The Future of Convertibility (1960, reprinted 1983), in which the author points out the contradictions in the IMF system. A suggestion for target zones for exchange rates is presented in John Williamson, The Exchange Rate System, 2nd ed. (1985). International debt is specifically discussed in Bela Balassa et al., Toward Renewed Economic Growth in Latin America (1986); William R. Cline, International Debt: Systemic Risk and Policy Response, new ed. (1984); Thomas O. Enders and Richard P. Mattione, Latin America: The Crisis of Debt and Growth (1984); and Carol Lancaster and John Williamson (eds.), African Debt and Financing (1986). Paul Wonnacott