PENITENTIAL BOOK

any of the manuals used in Europe by priests of the Western church, especially during the early Middle Ages, in administering ecclesiastical penance. (The name penance is applied to both a sacramental rite and acts performed in satisfaction for sins.) Penitentials contained (1) detailed lists of sins that the priest was to consider in assisting an individual penitent with his examination of conscience and confession during the rite and (2) corresponding penances or acts that were to be assigned to the penitent. The first penitential books appeared in Ireland and Wales, and the earliest extant compilations are probably those associated with St. David and various Welsh synods of the 6th century. These and later Celtic penitentials were brought to the continent of Europe by missionary monks at an early date. Their introduction met with the opposition of ecclesiastics who favoured the older, traditional public penance, but there is considerable documentary evidence that penitential books were in use among the Franks by the late 6th century, in Italy by the late 8th century, and among the Spanish Visigoths by the early 9th century. Recognition that errors had crept into the penitential books and that they had imposed arbitrary penances, combined with the proscription of local councils and bishops, led to the decline in influence of these books. The ultimate effect of the penitentials and of the reaction against them was the official codification of disciplinary and penitential canons or laws. Besides their importance in the history of theology and canon law, the penitentials are of value to the philologist as source material for comparative studies of Latin, Anglo-Saxon, Old Irish, and Icelandic forms and to the social historian for the vivid picture they present of the manners and morals of pagan peoples just coming under the influence of Christianity.