HALF-TIMBER WORK

method of building in which external and internal walls are constructed of timber frames and the spaces between the structural members are filled with such materials as brick, plaster, or wattle and daub. Traditionally, a half-timbered building was made of squared oak timbers joined by mortises, tenons, and wooden pegs; the building's cagelike structural skeleton is often strengthened at the corners with braces. This method of timber framing was adapted to both low, rambling country homes and six- or seven-storied buildings in crowded towns. In the 20th century a modified version of the method was still being used, in which light sills, studs, and joists only 2 inches (5 cm) thick are nailed together to make the house's frame in place of the old pegged girts, beams, and braces. Where only the decorative effect of half-timber work is desired, boards are applied to a wall surface in a sham version of the old structural pattern. Half-timber work was common in China and, in a refined form, in Japan and was used for domestic architecture throughout northern continental Europe, especially Germany and France, until the 17th century. In England it was popular in regions that lacked stone as a building material. It was used in England in the southern counties and the West Midlands, especially, from about 1450 to 1650. Many domestic buildings done in half-timber work have a characteristic second-story overhang. This projection gains a small amount of space on the upper levels. The main advantage, however, is structural: the cantilevers at the ends of the beams partially counterbalance the load carried by their spanning portions. The wooden frames of 13th- and 14th-century half-timber structures were often elaborately ornamented. Exposed ground-floor posts were frequently carved with the images of patron saints, whereas other framing elements were enriched with delicate running patterns. In France the latter emphasized the vertical elements, and in England the tendency was to stress the horizontal lines of the structure. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the decorative contrast between the dark timber and the lighter filling was fully exploited. Panels between the studs were made of brick in herringbone patterns or of plaster molded or incised with floral forms or with inlays of slate, tile, or marl. Carved ornament was lavish and fanciful and showed classical motifs. Many wooden members were added without structural necessity. These were often crisscrossed under windows, and in England, where more timberwork was exposed, they were assembled in cusped shapes or chevrons to create the striking patterns of the black and white manor houses of Cheshire and Lancashire. In Germany a bolder and cruder effect was obtained by using fewer elements and emphasizing angle bracing. English inhabitants of the American colonies found it expedient to use an insulating layer of wood siding (clapboards or weatherboarding), and half-timbering was not visible from outside. In the French and German American settlements, however, the buildings were faithful copies of the European models.